| Summary: | Population performance is predicted to be more strongly influenced by detrimental species interactions such as predation under benign climatic conditions, and by climate forcing under harsh conditions, reflected in geographical gradients in biotic interaction strength. Less appreciated is the potential for site-specific changes in drivers with the advent of anthropogenic alteration of predator-prey relationships, including apex predator restoration and spread of invasive predators. Particularly interesting is the relative impact of climate and biotic interactions on population performance when these conflict. In this 31-year study (1990-2020), we revisit a common eider (Somateria mollissima) population from SW Finland, Baltic Sea, fifteen years on from an earlier study showing that climate warming positively affected reproductive parameters and performance. However, the population is simultaneously exposed to increasing predation by the rapidly recovering native apex predator and invasive mammals. Based on the current population trend, we predicted (i) a weakening of the previously documented positive effects of a warming climate on vital rates, (ii) intensified predation, and (iii) increasing top-down control of vital rates and accompanying population decline. Five out of seven breeding parameters (annual spread in female body condition, breeding phenology and synchrony, interval between arrival and breeding, fledgling production) were best explained by predation indices, whereas climate signals (winter NAO, Baltic Sea maximum ice cover) on breeding parameters have weakened. Particularly intriguing is that the previous positive association between mild ice winters and subsequent reproductive output has disappeared during the past 15 years, highlighting the non-linear nature of climate change responses. Indirect predation effects (selective disappearance, changed reproductive strategies, nest-site selection and population age distribution) can potentially explain also the remaining breeding parameters (annual ...
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