Spain
![Celtic castro in Galicia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/2014_Castro_de_Santa_Trega._Galiza-2.jpg)
In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by Celtic and Iberian tribes, along with other local pre-Roman peoples. With the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the province of Hispania was established. Following the Romanization and Christianization of Hispania, the fall of the Western Roman Empire ushered in the inward migration of tribes from Central Europe, including the Visigoths, who formed the Visigothic Kingdom centred on Toledo. In the early eighth century, most of the peninsula was invaded by the Umayyad Caliphate, and during early Islamic rule, Al-Andalus became a dominant peninsular power centred on Córdoba. Several Christian kingdoms emerged in Northern Iberia, chief among them Asturias, León, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal; made an intermittent southward military expansion and repopulation, known as the ''Reconquista'', repelling Islamic rule in Iberia, which culminated with the Christian seizure of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492. The dynastic union of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1479 under the Catholic Monarchs is often considered the ''de facto'' unification of Spain as a nation-state.
During the Age of Discovery, Spain pioneered the exploration of the New World, made the first circumnavigation of the globe and formed one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish empire reached a global scale and spread across all continents, underpinning the rise of a global trading system fueled primarily by precious metals. The 18th century was marked by extensive reforms and, notably, the Bourbon reforms centralized mainland Spain. In the 19th century, after the Napoleonic occupation and the victorious Spanish War of independence, the following political divisions between liberals and absolutists led to the breakaway of most of the American colonies. These political divisions finally converged in the 20th century with the Spanish Civil War, giving rise to the Francoist dictatorship that lasted until 1975. With the restoration of democracy and its entry into the European Union, the country experienced an economic boom that profoundly transformed it socially and politically. Since the ''Siglo de Oro'', Spanish art, architecture, music, poetry, painting, literature, and cuisine have been influential worldwide, particularly in Western Europe and the Americas. Spain is one of the main nations of Latin Europe and a cultural superpower. As a reflection of its large cultural wealth, Spain is the world's second-most visited country, has one of the world's largest numbers of World Heritage Sites, and it is the most popular destination for European students. Its cultural influence extends to over 600 million Hispanophones, making Spanish the world's second-most spoken native language and the world's most widely spoken Romance language.
Spain is a secular parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with King Felipe VI as head of state. It is a major advanced capitalist economy, with the world's fifteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP (fourth of the European Union) and the fifteenth-largest by PPP. Spain is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a permanent guest of the G20, and is part of many other international organizations such as the Council of Europe (CoE), the Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI), the Union for the Mediterranean, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Provided by Wikipedia
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64by Dickerson, Russell R., Novelli, Paul C., Spain, T. Gerard, Oltmans, Samuel J., Doddridge, Bruce G.Get access
Published 1994
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65by Spain, E, Johnason, S, Hutton, B, Whittaker, J, Lucieer, V, Watson, S, Fox, J, Coffin, MFGet access
Published 2018
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66by Weigelt, A., Ebinghaus, R., Manning, A., Derwent, R., Simmonds, P., Spain, T., Jennings, S., Slemr, F.Get access
Published in Atmospheric Environment (2015)
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67by Derwent, Richard G., Manning, Alistair J., Simmonds, Peter G., Spain, T. Gerard, O'Doherty, SimonGet access
Published in Atmospheric Environment (2018)
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69by Guazzo, RA, Schulman-Janiger, A, Smith, MH, Barlow, J, D’Spain, GL, Rimington, DB, Hildebrand, JAGet access
Published 2019
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70by Ebinghaus, R., Jennings, S.G., Kock, H.H., Derwent, R.G., Manning, A.J., Spain, T.G.Get access
Published in Atmospheric Environment (2011)
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71by Custodio, D., Pfaffhuber, K., Spain, T., Pankratov, F., Strigunova, I., Molepo, K., Skov, H., Bieser, J., Ebinghaus, R.Get access
Published in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (2022)
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72by Helble, Tyler A, D'Spain, Gerald L, Hildebrand, John A, Campbell, Gregory S, Campbell, Richard L, Heaney, Kevin DGet access
Published 2013
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73by San José, Roberto; Environmental Software and Modelling Group, Computer Science School, Technical University of Madrid (UPM), Campus de Montegancedo, Boadilla del Monte, 28660 Madrid (Spain), Pérez, Juan L.; Environmental Software and Modelling Group, Computer Science School, Technical University of Madrid (UPM), Campus de Montegancedo, Boadilla del Monte, 28660 Madrid (Spain), Morant, José L.; Environmental Software and Modelling Group, Computer Science School, Technical University of Madrid (UPM), Campus de Montegancedo, Boadilla del Monte, 28660 Madrid (Spain), González, Rosa M.; Department of Meteorology and Geophysics, Faculty of Physics, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid (Spain)Get access
Published 2008
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76by Guazzo, Regina A, Helble, Tyler A, D’Spain, Gerald L, Weller, David W, Wiggins, Sean M, Hildebrand, John AGet access
Published 2017
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78by Guazzo, Regina A, Helble, Tyler A, D'Spain, Gerald L, Weller, David W, Wiggins, Sean M, Hildebrand, John AGet access
Published 2017
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79by Regina A Guazzo, Tyler A Helble, Gerald L D'Spain, David W Weller, Sean M Wiggins, John A HildebrandGet access
Published in PLOS ONE (2017)
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80by Ricci-Bonot, Claire, Barcelos, Ana María, Davies, Ellenor, Phillips, Kitty, Pinto Arackal, Joseph, Smith, Honour, Spain, Adele, Mills, Daniel S.Get access
Published 2024
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