Singapore
![Letter from [[William Farquhar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Letter_from_William_Farquhar_to_Sultan_Muhammad_Kanzul_Alam%2C_the_Sultan_of_Brunei%2C_dated_28_November_1819.jpg)
Singapore's history dates back at least eight hundred years, having been a maritime emporium known as ''Temasek'' and subsequently a major constituent part of several successive thalassocratic empires. Its contemporary era began in 1819, when Stamford Raffles established Singapore as an entrepôt trading post of the British Empire. In 1867, Singapore came under the direct control of Britain as part of the Straits Settlements. During World War II, Singapore was occupied by Japan in 1942 and returned to British control as a separate Crown colony following Japan's surrender in 1945. Singapore gained self-governance in 1959 and, in 1963, became part of the new federation of Malaysia, alongside Malaya, North Borneo, and Sarawak. Ideological differences led to Singapore's expulsion from the federation two years later; Singapore became an independent sovereign country in 1965.
After early years of turbulence and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation rapidly developed to become one of the Four Asian Tigers. With its growth based on international trade and economic globalisation, it integrated itself with the world economy through free trade with minimal trade barriers and tariffs, export-oriented industrialisation, and the large accumulation of received foreign direct investments, foreign exchange reserves, and assets held by sovereign wealth funds. As a highly developed country, it has one of the highest GDP per capita (PPP) in the world. Identified as a tax haven, Singapore is the only country in Asia with a AAA sovereign credit rating from all major rating agencies. It is a major aviation, financial, and maritime shipping hub and has consistently been ranked as one of the most expensive cities to live in for expatriates and foreign workers. Singapore ranks highly in key social indicators: education, healthcare, quality of life, personal safety, infrastructure, and housing, with a home-ownership rate of 88 percent. Singaporeans enjoy one of the longest life expectancies, fastest Internet connection speeds, lowest infant mortality rates, and lowest levels of corruption in the world.
Singapore is a parliamentary republic in the Westminster tradition of unicameral parliamentary government, and its legal system is based on common law. While the country is ''de jure'' a multi-party democracy with free elections, the government under the People's Action Party (PAP) wields widespread control and political dominance. The PAP has governed the country continuously since full internal self-government was achieved in 1959, and holds a supermajority in Parliament. One of the five founding members of ASEAN, Singapore is also the headquarters of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council Secretariat, and is the host city of many international conferences and events. Singapore is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the East Asia Summit, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Commonwealth of Nations. Provided by Wikipedia
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61by Moore, Christopher R., Brooks, Mark J., Goodyear, Albert C., Ferguson, Terry A., Perrotti, Angelina G., Mitra, Siddhartha, Listecki, Ashlyn M., King, Bailey C., Mallinson, David J., Lane, Chad S., Kapp, Joshua D., West, Allen, Carlson, David L., Wolbach, Wendy S., Them, Theodore R., Harris, M. Scott, Pyne-O'Donnell, SeanContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Scientific Reports (2019)
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62by Zhu, Jiang, Liu, Zhengyu, Brady, Esther C., Otto-Bliesner, Bette L., Marcott, Shaun A., Zhang, Jiaxu, Wang, Xianfeng, Nusbaumer, Jesse, Wong, Tony E., Jahn, Alexandra, Noone, DavidContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Geophysical Research Letters (2018)
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63by Zhu, Jiang, Liu, Zhengyu, Brady, Esther C., Otto-Bliesner, Bette L., Marcott, Shaun A., Zhang, Jiaxu, Wang, Xianfeng, Nusbaumer, Jesse, Wong, Tony E., Jahn, Alexandra, Noone, DavidContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Geophysical Research Letters (2017)
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64by Walker, Jennifer S., Kopp, Robert E., Little, Christopher M., Horton, Benjamin PeterContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Nature Communications (2022)
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65by Hubbard, Judith, Almeida, Rafael, Foster, Anna, Sapkota, Soma Nath, Bürgi, Paula, Tapponnier, PaulContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Geology (2019)
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66by García-Artola, Ane, Stéphan, Pierre, Cearreta, Alejandro, Kopp, Robert E., Khan, Nicole S., Horton, Benjamin PeterContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Quaternary Science Reviews (2018)
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67by Reed, Andra J., Mann, Michael E., Emanuel, Kerry A., Lin, Ning, Kemp, Andrew C., Donnelly, Jeffrey P., Horton, Benjamin P.Contributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
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68by Liu, Xiaokang, Rao, Zhiguo, Shen, Chuan‐Chou, Liu, Jianbao, Chen, Jianhui, Chen, Shengqian, Wang, Xianfeng, Chen, FahuContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (2019)
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69by Reed, Andra J., Mann, Michael E., Emanuel, Kerry A., Lin, Ning, Horton, Benjamin P., Kemp, Andrew C., Donnelly, Jeffrey P.Contributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2015)
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70by Liu, Xiaokang, Rao, Zhiguo, Shen, Chuan‐Chou, Liu, Jianbao, Chen, Jianhui, Chen, Shengqian, Wang, Xianfeng, Chen, FahuContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (2019)
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71by Ali, Guleed Ahmed Hussein, Lin, Ke, Hemming, Sidney R., Cox, Stephen E., Ruprecht, Philipp, Zimmerman, Susan R. H., Stine, Scott, Wang, XianfengContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in GSA Bulletin (2022)
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72by Nguyen, Dung Chi, Lee, Shih-Yu, Chen, Yue-Gau, Chiang, Hong-Wei, Shen, Chuan-Chou, Wang, Xianfeng, Doan, Lam Dinh, Lin, YinContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Journal of Asian Earth Sciences: X (2022)
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73by Düsterhus, André, Rovere, Alessio, Carlson, Anders E., Horton, Benjamin Peter, Klemann, Volker, Tarasov, Lev, Barlow, Natasha L. M., Bradwell, Tom, Clark, Jorie, Dutton, Andrea, Gehrels, W. Roland, Hibbert, Fiona D., Hijma, Marc P., Khan, Nicole, Kopp, Robert E., Sivan, Dorit, Törnqvist, Torbjörn E.Contributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Climate of the Past (2018)
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74by Düsterhus, André, Rovere, Alessio, Carlson, Anders E., Horton, Benjamin Peter, Klemann, Volker, Tarasov, Lev, Barlow, Natasha L. M., Bradwell, Tom, Clark, Jorie, Dutton, Andrea, Gehrels, W. Roland, Hibbert, Fiona D., Hijma, Marc P., Khan, Nicole, Kopp, Robert E., Sivan, Dorit, Törnqvist, Torbjörn E.Contributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Climate of the Past (2016)
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75by Caudron, Corentin, Taisne, Benoit, Neuberg, Jurgen, Jolly, Arthur D., Christenson, Bruce, Lecocq, Thomas, Suparjan, Syahbana, Devy, Suantika, GedeContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Earth, Planets and Space (2019)
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76by Caudron, Corentin, Taisne, Benoit, Neuberg, Jurgen, Jolly, Arthur D., Christenson, Bruce, Lecocq, Thomas, Suparjan, Syahbana, Devy, Suantika, GedeContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Earth, Planets and Space (2018)
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77by Horton, Benjamin Peter, Khan, Nicole S., Cahill, Niamh, Lee, Janice Ser Huay, Shaw, Timothy Adam, Garner, Andra J., Kemp, Andrew C., Engelhart, Simon E., Rahmstorf, StefanContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in npj Climate and Atmospheric Science (2020)
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78by Li, Tanghua, Khan, Nicole S., Baranskaya, Alisa V., Shaw, Timothy Adam, Peltier, W. Richard, Stuhne, Gordan R., Wu, Patrick, Horton, Benjamin PeterContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth (2022)
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79by Baranskaya, Alisa V., Khan, Nicole S., Romanenko, Fedor A., Roy, Keven, Peltier, William R., Horton, Benjamin PeterContributors: “...Earth Observatory of Singapore...”
Published in Quaternary Science Reviews (2018)
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80by Curtis-Harper, Elliot, Pearson, Victoria K., Summers, Stephen, Bridges, John C., Schwenzer, Susanne P., Olsson-Francis, KarenContributors: “...Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering...”
Published in Microorganisms (2018)
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