| Summary: | Recent research from the Institute of Texan Cultures was a bi-annual newsletter highlighting research activities at the Institute of Texan Cultures. - - - RECENT RESEARCH from THE INSTITUTE OF TEXAN CULTURES DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH AND COLLECTIONS VOL.2 #2 MARCH, 1992 - - - - INTRODUCTION The materials in this issue of Recent Research provide an excellent example of community-oriented university scholarship. In 1990 Dr. Dan Gelo undertook a nine-month study of the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe as part of the Institute's ongoing field research program. Since that time he has generated archival documentation of his work, worked with the Institute's Audiovisual Production Department on a video program about the AlabamaCoushatta which reached a nationwide public television audience, delivered papers at academic conferences, and continued to work with informants on the reservation to extend the benefits of the research to them. Copies of this bibliography, the videotape programs, and other materials have been placed with the AlabamaCoushatta as resources for tribal use. James C. McNutt, Ph.D. Director Research and Collections ij.,.I· . a 9P'~t.p~lFtjcill{~rl(qpffl{'1:{l~t;9«'~§%¢1.f{kl-l~¥i!fif!1~Zrl:¥~kgjrfEi.~f9r2rUJ;lJing~ubJjc~ati(i)I1irIJp~roife~ssjfon:BJ .· {~i'.IJ'jITJ'f4Itl/J'l'~Fl~TllEz"f1;!::; " .>:.:.::.;.;.:.:-: . ,:.:::::::.::: .~:}){:::::.::::::::; . R.~fJr~4f~ fop!¥s gfi{etlptRb${fiidJ;i/JJW!§i!jb~tb7t{atp~R4ij60~jl1stJiutJ &epaFftr1~ntsforthejr . us# ]4dt9bti1~{~61e~1;~h~l"{ ~p(i/#J¥Jp§¥{~bfj4~ i1p!vd;~jtY 9omn/l1I)itxiwpo!l1ay request them. - - - - - The Alabama-Coushatta Indians: A Research Guide and Bibliography Compiled by Daniel J. Gelo and Tammy J. Morales In trod uction Unlike most similar works, this bibliography is the direct outgrowth ofa field project, an ethnographic survey by Gelo for the Institute of Texan Cultures on the Alabama-Coushatta Reservation in 1990. Early that year, as many published materials as possible were collected, subjected to source criticism, and synopsized. As the field study progressed, the annotations were augmented and revised in light of our understanding of AlabamaCoushatta culture and (in some cases) the opinion of native consultants. The supposition arose that future researchers might benefit from' our experience of reading each entry with an anthropological eye. It also became apparent that it was important to understand the Alabama-Coushatta corpus in its entirety, as an artifact of Indian-white relations, and that we could promote this understanding if our introductory remarks and individual annotations were read as a running commentary on the nature of the corpus. And all during the fieldwork we became aware of numerous unanswered questions and gaps in the cultural anthropology of the tribes. Therefore, our three purposes are to provide a basic reference tool, to offer a critical view of an entire body of writings, and to draw attention to neglected issues of Alabama-Coushatta ethnology. This guide covers published sources, theses, and dissertations on Alabama and Coushatta Indians in Texas through November 1991. The two closelyrelated tribes left their historic homelands in the river bottoms of North Alabama, migrating westward through Louisiana before entering Texas circa 1790. A reservation w-as established in the Big Thicket forest land of Polk County in 1854-55, which, with adjacent property, continues to house the majority of Alabamas and a smaller proportion of Coushattas. A significant popUlation of Coushattas (and a minority of Alabamas) remains in Louisiana, tied to the Texas community through continued migration and intermarriage. Literature on the Louisiana group is also included here, although Texas was the focus of our field project, and much more has been written in recent times about the Texas group. As the Alabama-Cotishattas have a unique and remarkable history among the Indians of Texas, the literature on them has its own particular character. In fact, it is clear that the nature of scholarship and journalism on the Alabama-Coushattas has been partly determined by the natural and historical conditions that affected the tribes. Physical isolation in the Big Thicket insured preservation of Indian languages and lines of descent, but also seems to have fostered anthropological neglect. The great surges of study initiated by the Bureau of American Ethnology and then the Boasians bypassed the Texas Alabama-Coushattas. Even John Swanton, the preeminent Southeast Indian scholar, managed only two brief visits to Indian Village, and the pioneering· ethnomusicologist Frances Densmore was able to record only one singer--in the basement of the Polk County Courthouse in Livingston--because the road to the reservation was impassable when she visited in the winter of 1933. Documentation of tribal life was left largely to local journalists, mission workers, legislators, and avocational historians, and the corpus exemplifies some of the best and worst kind of writing that comes from such efforts. Again, physical and social distance was a great obstacle. Sam Houston's admonition to the Alabamas that they not let the sun set with a white man on their reservation was taken seriously, so that very few non-Indians have resided among the Indians. Indian experience in nearby towns was mostly limited to occasional trading trips until the 1920s, when some began attending high school or working as domestics in Livingston. There is some evidence that the Mobilian trade language was used by Indian and white traders in the area into the present century, suggesting the limited and specialized nature of contact. The 1900 census shows that only male household heads spoke English, further indicating the degree of social isolation. Each tribe was strictly endogamous, and while intennarriage between Alabamas and Coushattas gradually became acceptable, there are still strong sociopolitical inducements to marry within either of the tribes. Racial prejudice was evident in some elements of the white population; sometime after 1881 the first Indian church was reportedly torched, and in living memory Indians were required to use the back doors of certain stores in Livingston. Though today a modern highway links Livingston and Woodville with Indian Village and racial attitudes have changed, the limited nature of contact between reservation residents and non-Indians is still notable. Indians and non-Indians may interact at school, sporting events, or work, but the majority of area non-Indians seem indiITerent to the cultural life of the reservation. Fortunately, through most of the history of the reservation there have been a few local observers to record aspects of Alabama-Coushatta life. Often these writers visited the reservation because they were involved in specific goodwill eITorts, so that some valuable infom1ation comes to us through documents prepared for legislative campaigns to secure relief or augment the reservation {item nos. 27, 45, 146, 176-179 below}, and also through writings on the history of the Presbyterian mission at Indian Village {107}. Several area schoolteachers have also written on the tribes, though the level of insight they oITer is disappointing in many cases {II, 21, 54, 110, 148, 149, ISO}. A number of master's theses on Alabama-Coushatta history and education have been written at colleges in the region, usually by people with some prior church or school connection to the tribes {9S, 114, 116, 126, 139, 151, 171}. Members of local historical organizations have tended to focus on Anglo settlement and genealogies; their research only rarely involves the Alabama-Coushattas {e.g. 130}. One writer, Howard Martin, stands out for having made the transition from avocational researcher to trained scholar. High school friend of Alabama Matthew Bullock and frequent visitor to the reservation in his youth, Martin went on to study history and folklore at the University of Texas under Dobie, Barker, and Boatright. While at the University, he corresponded with John Swanton. Among 11 his contributions have been scrupulous research on early trails and village sites {I22}, documentation of Alabama and Coushatta service to the Confederacy {123}, and the collection and motif-indexing of tribal folktales {lI8-121, 124}. Martin is the leading ethnohistorian of the Texas tribes and has been appointed official Tribal Historian. Other significant scholarly contributions have been made periodically by researchers specializing in areas such as Texas colonial and republican history {l8, 32, 50, 52, 61, 108, 125, 131, 15S}. These works generally deal with chronology rather than cultural process or culture traits, and while often critical as background infoffi1ation, they are not especially helpful to those interested in AlabamaCoushatta cultural life. We could find but one pertinent work on historical archaeology {75} . In recent years the related but distinct Alabama and Koasati languages have been well studied. Interest in them reflects the increasing vitality of Muskogean linguistics generally. Most important is the study of Alabama conducted in Texas since 1980 by Heather Hardy of the University of North Texas and colleagues Philip Davis, Timothy Mon tier, and Jack Martin, supported in part by the National Endowment for the Humanities. This project has produced several technical articles on phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics {34, 35, 63-65, 128, 129}, and will soon yield a dictionary, written in collaboration with the late tribe member Cora Sylestine, which will insure the documentation of the language (Sylestine ~.al in press). Geoffrey Kimball has conducted a similar concerted effort for Koasati in Louisiana {88-94}, and other authors have made contributions {24, 60, 83, lOS, IS3}. Concentration has been on descriptive and semantic issues; however, scholars are now poised to reconsider questions of historical development and to address sociolinguistic and cognitive aspects. It may yet be possible to explore the subtleties of the Alabama and Coushatta worldviews through native language, ifKin1ball's Jungian interpretation of a Koasati tale {94} is any indication. Writings by Alabama-Coushatta people on their own culture ,are extremely scarce. The first literate generation was educated circa 1910, and literacy rapidly became a mark of accomplishment in the - - - - - tribal prestige system. Undoubtedly, Indian students were writing about tribal life for class assignments and essay contests, but this material has not surfaced, except for Emily Sylestine's historical sketch, published in Frontier Times in 1932 {168}. Clenson Sylestine furnished a brief report of Civilian Conservation Corp activities on the reservation in 1937 {l68}. James Sylestine was finishing a tribal history when he died in 1989; the manuscript is now being edited by Rev. Byron Price of Dallas, former reservation minister. There are some signs of increased interest among tribe members in tribal scholarship. Contestants for Powwow Princess must learn and tell a traditional story, and applicants for the Chief Kina Scholarships must write essays on tribal traditions. Another sign of concern for documentation was the cooperation given Gelo and the Institute of Texan Cultures during the 1990 field session. In the public at large there seems to be an insatiable appetite for Alabama-Coushatta materials written at the pedestrian level. This demand has resulted in a highly incestuous corpus, with the reiteration of numerous false or doubtful points and, in one instance, what appears to be a clear case of plagiarism {113}. To characterize the corpus, then, the literature on the Alabama-Coushattas tends to be historical more that ethnological. The sound historical and cultural (mainly linguistic) scholarship that has been done is outweighed by derivative writings and journalism. If researchers have any first-hand experience on the reservation, it tends to be very limited, often with access gained through acculturative institutions. No extended ethnohistoric study has been published, and no long-term ethnographic study has been undertaken. Our literature search was greatly expedited by Tate's Ib.e Indians Qf~: An Annotated ~ sea.rm Bibliography (1986), which has quickly become a standard reference. We retained Tate's citation form and consulted his annotations in preparing our own; but while acknowledging our debt to Tate and conceding overlap, there are some important differences between our treatment of the Alabama-Coushatta materials and his. Several items that were quite practically omitted from his comprehensive bibliogra phy are included here. One III item he lists (fate No. 1178) was found not to pertain to the Alabama-Coushattas. And while our evaluations of items are often consistent with those in Tate, our opinions of a few are markedly different, and in general we strove to give more specific and complete descriptions than were possible in the longer work. Differences are thus attributable to both format dictates and our particular point of view, developed while pursuing anthropological questions in the field. Among the items we felt should be included were several articles from popular magazines which are of negligible value to most scholars but nevertheless deserve attention as components of the corpus. The Alabama-Coushattashavebeenaconvenientsource oflocal color for Texas journalists as well as an important tourist attraction. Magazine writers have for a long time made efTorts to presen t the Indians to the general public, while since the 1960s tribe members have been able to present themselves at the tourist complex in a commercial and partly generalized depiction ofIndian culture. A dynamic view of tribal life must account for the intercultural perceptions and intracultural changes that result from this process of presentation, and therefore writings generated to satisfy the popular interest in Indians are examined here--the Frontier ~ and Thxa.s. Highways articles are typical for their respective tinle periods. Such works are incl uded with the proviso that they are best viewed as artifacts rather than references. We also gave much more attention to the linguistic literature, following the Boasian notion that even the most specialized linguistic analyses may contribute to the understanding of culture. Invaluable in this effort was a manuscript bibliography of Muskogean linguistics by Hardy and Scancarelli (1991), kindly provided to us by the authors. An excellent visual record of the Texas reservation circa 1890-1950 is the collection of forty-eight photographs compiled by Dorothy Chambers (Mrs. E. W.) Shill of the missionary family. A list of the Shill Collection holdings has been appended to the bibliography, with identifications and dates as verified by Cora Sylestine in an interview with Gelo, February 23, 1991. In limiting our undertaking to the review of published items and dissertations, significant manu- script sources have been excluded. Unpublished documents relevant to the Alabamas or Coushattas may be found in: National Archives (Office ofIndian Affairs Correspondence, War Department Collection of Confederate Letters); National Anthropological Archives (Swanton notes); Library of the American Philosophical Society (Taylor notes); Archives of the E. C. Barker Texas History Center at the University of Texas, Austin; Bexar Archives; Files of the General Land Office, Austin; Archives of the Texas State Library (Indian Papers, Department of State Letterbooks, Executive Record Books); The Howard-Tilton Memorial Library, Tulane University; Deed Records of Polk County, Texas; and possibly others. Although numerous manuscript references are cited in the published works included here, it is unlikely that most of the collections have been thoroughly exploited, and researchers should be mindful of their potential. Also excluded were general works on North American Indians which mention the Alabamas or Coushattas, although general works on Texas and Southeast Indians were included if they seemed to be likely points of departure. Basic sources on Creek culture have been included only if they contain specific discussions of Alabamas or Coushattas. Many of the general Creek sources are noted in the bibliographies of works treated here and should be consulted by serious researchers. Those seeking information on Alabamas or Coushattas in Oklahoma must review the Oklahoma Creek literature. (Sturtevant [1987:xv-xxi] provides a helpful overview of the Creek literature.) Similarly, general works on Muskogean languages have been omitted, and the linguistics articles cited here will direct readers to related works on the family. (Also see Booker's annotated bibliography of Southeastern languages [Booker 1991], and the earlier bibliographies of Pilling [1889] and Crawford [1975]). Except for items from national Indian newspapers, newspaper articles are not listed, though again many relevant ones are cited in the works discussed. Each annotation provides a basic summary (when one is necessary beyond the title) and an indication of the work's usefulness. A special effort was made to underscore data of ethnologic interest. Also, with so much redundancy in the literature, we pointed out borrowings, some of which are not IV properly cited, both to save researchers possible embarrassment and to illustrate the free and easy interplay between works. Background and experience of the author are supplied as far as possible. Concurrently, authors' native consultants are identified if possible, not only to acknowledge their participation but also as a measure of dependability and an indication of the point of view to which the author was exposed. Though each description stands alone, some entries are best consulted in groups; works by the same author and congressional reports often overlap or stand together in a serial relationship. Related entries that are not consecutive are cross-referenced by naming the author and entry number in the annotation. The spellings "Alabama" and "Coushatta", preferred by both the Texas and Louisiana tribal governments, are used in the annotations, even while varian t spellings have been preserved in the titles. The one departure from this practice is the use of "Koasati " for the Coushatta language, which has become a convention among linguists. The hyphenated title "Alabama-Coushatta" designates the modern political entity on the Texas reservation and is used here also to refer to the two peoples as they constitute a general research topic. Each author took on different collaborative responsibilities. Both secured copies of the works obtainable in San Antonio and handled interlibrary loan requests. Gelo examined works outside San Antonio and consulted with Alabama-Coushatta informants when necessary. Morales entered the bibliographie information for each citation. Both authors read and synopsized each item independen tly. The annotations in their final form were composed by Gelo. This work could not have been completed without the generous aid of librarians at the Institute of Texan Cultures, University of Texas at San Antonio, University of Texas at Austin, Texas A&M University, Trinity University, Stephen F. Austin State University, Sam Houston State University, Texas Christian University, LouisianaState University, and the Alabama-Coushatta Community Center Library. We especially wish to thank Clare Bass and Diane Bruce at lTC, Susan McCray and Dora Guerra at UTSA, and the late Sally Battise of the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe. - - - The authors would also like to acknowledge the hel p of several members of the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe whose interviews for the Institute of Texan CuI tures hel ped us in terpret previous research: Fred Alec, Obrey Alec, Debbie Battise, Doris Battise, Emmett Battise, Frances Battise, Ivey Battise, Jack Battise, Lawrine Battise, Robert Fulton Battise, Zetha Battise, Walter Celestine, Herbert Johnson, Sam Robinson, Clayton Sylestine, Clem Sylestine, Cora Williams, Jeffrey Williams, and Stephanie Williams. Frances Broemer, Walter Broemer, Thomas Foster, and Helen Malone were gracious in imparting their knowledge of tribal history and culture. Dr. Heather Hardy, Dr. Jack Martin, and Dr. Timothy Montler kindly shared their enthusiasm and expertise. The initial vision and guidance for the field project were provided by Gen. John McGiffert, Dr. James McNutt, and Dr. Thomas Guderjan at the Institute of Texan Cultures. Other important facilitators of the research were Institute staff members Leslie Burns, Dr. Linda Donley, John Feist, and Dr. John Minton. Dean Dwight Henderson and Dr. Raymond Baird of the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Texas at San Antonio were instrumental in enabling the fieldwork. Dr. Guderjan, David Haynes, Dr. Robert M. Hill, II, and Dr. Woodruff Smith made many helpful comments on earlier drafts which yielded improvements in this publication. Laurie M. Gudzikowski carefully prepared the manuscript for press. The authors offer deep thanks to all of these people, while noting that the interpretations which follow are solely our own. November 1991 Daniel J. Gelo Tammy J. Morales University of Texas at San Antonio v References Cited Booker, Karen 1991 Languages of the Aboriginal Southeast: An Annotated Bibliography. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. Crawford, James M. 1975 "Southeast Indian Languages." In Studies in Southeast Indian Languages. James M. Crawford, ed. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Hardy, Heather and Janine Scancarelli 1991 MuskogeanBibliographyandIntroduction. Unpublished manuscript. Pilling, James Constantine 1889 Bibliography of the Muskhogean Languages. Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 9. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office. Sturtevant, William C. 1987 A Creek Source Book. New York: Garland Publishers. Sylestine, Cora V., Heather K. Hardy, and Timothy R. Montler Alabama-English Dictionary. Austin: University of Texas Press. (in press) Tate, Michael L. 1986 The Indians of Texas: An Annotated Research Bibliography. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press. 1. Abernethy, Francis E. Hm£.the Critters Created~. Austin: Ellen C. Temple, 1982. 36 pp. Children's book illustrated by Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist Ben Sargen t; the story is an adaptation of the Alabama creation myth as published in Martin 1977 {121}. ? "Alabama-Coushatta Indian Reservation." ~£.uhfu; Employee, 25 (July 1970),24-27. Invitation for visitors to the tribal tourist complex, of interest because it describes plans for expansion; contains nineteen photos of tourist exhibits from the period. 3. "The Alabama-Coushatta Reservation, Texas." Smoke Signals, 43 (1965), 34. An announcement that classes on weaving, pottery, basketry, and costume were inaugurated for reservation artisans, taught by three Pueblo Indian instructors. 4. "Alabama-Coushatta Want Economic Freedom." Wassaja, 4 (November-December 1976),9. Indian newspaper item relating current relations between the tribe and federal and state governments. The information on reservation land purchases and demographics is inaccurate. 5. Allen, Ruth A. Eas1 Thxas. Lumber Workers: An Economic and SQ.ci.al Picture, 1870-1950. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1961. 239 pp. Includes demographic information on lumber workers from the U.S. Census of 1910, showing 30 individuals in the "other" racial category who were probably Indians from the Alabama-Coushatta reservation. 6. Almonte, Juan N. "Statistical Report on Texas." Translated byCarlos E. Castei\eda. Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 28 (January 1925), 177-222. Mexican government observer in 1834 notes Coushattas among the friendly Indians around Nacogdoches, who present him with a petition for land. 7. Austin, Stephen F. The Austin Papers. Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1919, Vol. II, parts 1 and 2. Edited by Eugene C. Barker. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1924. 1824 pp. Austin's correspondence for the period 1789-1827 includes numerous references to the Alabamas and Coushattas (indexed as "Coshaui"). Note that "Coushatta" or "Coshatti" was also used as a collective term for both peoples during this period. 8. "A Benefit to Indians on the Alabama and Coushatta Reservation." Indians at~, 2 (April 15, 1935),33. Paragraph noting that Emergency Conservation work was an economic boon to the Alabamas and Coushattas, especially since their area was hard hit by the drought of 1934. Some families would use salaries from the program to buy mules for plowing. 9. Berlandier, Jean Louis. The Indians clI.exa.s in l8.3.Q. Edited by John C. Ewers. Translated by Patricia Reading Leclercq. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Insti tution Press, 1969. 209 pp. This documentation of Texas Indian life includes description of the Alabamas and Coushattas, emphasizing their peaceful nature and assimilated appearance. Berlandier was a French botanist and zoologist who explored Texas as a member of the Mexican government's Comision de Limites expedition. He viewed Indian cultures objectively, and here concise footnotes by the editor amplify the author's observations. Capital punishment among the Coushattas is noted in their description and also in a general discussion of Indian law. The weaving of cotton cloth is noted for the Alabamas, and the fIrst fruits ceremony for the Coushattas. Population fIgures are provided by the author and editor. A watercolor of two Coushatta men by Luis Sanchez y Tapia, showing dress of the period, is included. Nevertheless, reviewers have noted serious and chronic translation errors which affect the ethnographic information. Careful researchers will, unfortunately, need to consult the original French manuscripts, locations of which are discussed in the book's introduction. See also Sanchez 1926 {l52}. 10. --- . Journey 1Q Mexjco During 1ill: ~ l.8.2ll1Q.1.8.3.4. Volume 2. Translated by Sheila M. Ohlendorf, Josette M. Bigelow, and Mary M. Standifer. Austin: Texas State Historical Association. pp. 288-672. Mentions a Coushatta village on the Trinity River and notes Coushatta conflict with Comanches in 1832-33. 11. Berry, Rotha McClain. "The Alabama and Coushatta Indians of Texas." Thxas. Geographic Magazine, 12 (Fall 1948), 19-23. Berry, aschooIteacher, discusses Alabama and Coushatta settlement of Texas, their reliance on the Presbyterian Church and Federal government, and the failure of agriCUlture and subsequent work patterns. This article con tains dubious, unsu bstan tiated statements, and lacks references. 12. Bludworth, G.T. "How the Alabamas Came Southward." In Straight~. Publications of the Texas Folklore Society, No. 13. Edited by J. Frank Dobie. Austin: Texas Folklore Society, 1937. pp. 2 298-299; rpt. Hatboro, Pennsylvania: Folklore Associates, Inc., 1966. Article presen ting a tale of the journey of the Alabamas from Saskatchewan to the southeast. The tale was relayed by a Cherokee Indian to the author through a third individual. The article does not mention that the notion that the Alabamas migrated as such from the far northwest is hypothetical and improbable. 13. Bolton, Herbert. Athanase.\k Mezieres and .the Louisiana-Texas Frontjer, 1768-] 780, Vol. 2. Cle~eland: Arthur H. Clark, 1914. 392 pp. Provides documentation of the Alabama occupation of Louisiana. 14. Bossu, Jean-Bernard. Nouveaux voyages ill.IX In.d.e.s. Occidentales. 2 vols. Paris: Le Jay, 1768; Amsterdam: D. J. Changuion, 1769. Bossu was a French marine officer stationed at Fort Toulouse (near present-day Montgomery, Alabama) in 1759. His letters offer straightforward observation of Alabama marriage and funeral customs, religion, warfare and diplomacy, family life, and hunting. 15. __ m. Travels through Ih.a1 .e.art Qf NQIlh America Formerly Called Loujsjana. 2 vols. Translated by John Reinhold Forster. London: T. Davies, 1771. A rare early English translation of Bossu 1768. 16. --- . Travels in.the Interior clNQnh America, 1751-1762. Translated by Seymour Feiler. N orman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962. 243 pp. Modem English translation ofBossu 1768 which attempts to preserve the style of the original writings while utilizingcontempo- - - rary names for tribes, places, plants, and animals. 17. Bounds, John H. "The Alabama-Coushatta Indians of Texas." Journal ill Geography, 70 (March 1971), 175-182. Migration histories of the tribes, followed by a more useful geographical account of the development of the reservation between 1854 and 1970, with emphasis on the gradual shift from pre-European hunting and gathering to logging and farming, and ultimately tourism. Includes details on population, dwellings, soils, land use, and economic development, drawn from technical reports and interviews with local officials. 18. Burch, Marvin C. "The Indigenous Indians of the Lower Trinity Area of Texas." Southwestern Hjstorical Quarterly, 60 (July 1956),36-52. Overview of area tribes briefly discusses the early years of Alabama and Coushatta occupation, citing material from Swanton and the Texas State Archives. 19. Campbell, Thomas Nolan. "Alabama Indians." In Ib.e Handbook ill ilxali, a Supplement, Vol. 3. Edited by Eldon Stephen Branda. Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1976. pp. 13-14. General statement on the Alabamas supplementing other Handbook entries {37, 115}. Notes the dire state of Alabama ethnohistory, which has been only somewhat improved since this entry was written. 20. --- . "Koasati Indians." In ~ Handbook Q.[ ~, a Supplement, Vol. 3. Edited by Eldon Stephen Branda. Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1976. pp.483-484. Short entry covering the Coushattas in Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma, supp\e- 3 menting related Handbook entries {37, U5}. Includes a call for detailed ethnohistorical research. The bibliographic citation of Swanton 1946 {161} has an error in the title. 21 . Carleton, Lessie. "Indians of Southeast Texas." Master's thesis, North Texas State Teacher's College, 1939. 91 pp. Most of this thesis is devoted to the Alabamas and Coushattas. It includes a standardized account of migration and settlement, and a more specific discussion of Indian-white relations and reservation life in the 1920's and 1930's. A trade dialect distinct from the Alabama language is reported to have been in use in the area. The author conducted informal interviews with Chief Charles Martin Thompson, and limited participantobservation, but mainly summarized from secondary sources, particularly newspaper articles. Stereo typic language colors the descriptions of cultural practices. 22. Casteneda, Carlos E. Q.ur Catholic Heritage in ~. Vol. 5. Austin: Von Boekman-Jones, 1942. 514 pp. The author cites a 1795 colonial report that the Alabamas were beginning to drive the Ais and their neighbors westward; significant as a reference to the displacement of Caddoans by the Alabamas. 23. Chamberlain, C.K. "East Texas: AlabamaCoushatta Indian Reservation." Eas1~Hjstorkill Journal, 8 (March 1970), 109-117. A standard historical sketch of the tribes, furnished by the office of reservation superintendent Walter W. Broemer, followed by a newspaper account of the installation of chiefs Fulton and Emmett Battise on January 1, 1970. 24. Chiu, Bonnie Hui-Chun. "Alabama Verbal Morphology: Set I AffIxes." Master's thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1987. 49 pp. Formulation of rules for the positioning of inflexional affixes in Alabama verbs. The analytic framework employed is Extended Word and Paradigm Theory, which rejects the traditional defInition of the morpheme as minimal unit of meaning. 25. Clarke, Mary Whatley. l2a.Y.i.d. Q. Burnet. New York: Pemberton Press, 1969. 303 pp. Notes purported attempt by slaves to instigate a Coushatta ("Coshatti") revolt against the Texas Repu blic. 26. _m_. "The State of Two Tribes." ~ Cattleman, 69 (August 1982),158-162,177. General history and description of the Alabama-Coushattas and the Tiguas of Ysleta del Sur, Texas, with photos of Jack Battise and Myra Battise. 27. Cogdell, Mrs. Earl. "Financial Aid Is Promised Isolated Indians in Texas." ~ American Indian (Society of Oklahoma Indians), 1 (August 1927),6. Historical sketch and description of living conditions and efforts to secure fInancial aid for the reservation. Mrs. Cogdell was Texas State Chairman of Indian Welfare and a principal in the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs. The article gives the tribal population as 206, and states incorrectly that the Alabamas are a branch of the Choctaws. Includes a photo of Mrs. Cogdell with an Indian child at the reservation. See also "Indians of Polk County" {77}, "Report of Committee" {l46}. 4 28. Constitution and By-laws cl!he Alabama and Coushatta ~ cl fuM. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. 10 pp. 29. Corporate Charter cl !he Alabama and Coushatta :I.riW cl fuM. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1940. 6 pp. Docwnents establishing the modern form of tribal government on the reservation, under the Indian Reorganization Act of June 18, 1934. Facsimiles of these documents appear in Marsh 1940 {116} and Rothe 1963 {149}. 30. "Coushatta Victory." Indian AITairs (July 1973),3-6. Article announcing federal recognition of the Louisiana Coushattas after many years of limited and intem1ittent federal support, with some detail on the process of securing recognition and a rich synopsis of Coushatta history. 31. Coston, I. A. "Only Indian Reservation In Texas." Frontjer Tjmes, 24 (April 1947), 386-389. This tribal profile, written in 1924, is generally condescending in tone. In addition to the usual historical infom1ation, it includes descriptions of Indian racial attitudes and the shift from farming to lumber work. The village population is given as 249. 32. Cox, Isaac Joslin . ''The Louisiana-Texas Frontier, II." Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 17 (July 1913), 1-42. Includes brief mention of Spanish efforts to use the Alabamas and Coushattas as buffer populations on the frontier. 33. Cozzine, James Joseph Jr. "Assault on a Wilderness: The Big Thicket of East Texas." Ph.D. - dissertation, Texas A&M University, 1976. 365 pp. The chapter on Indian occupation of the Big Thicket surveys common sources and recapitulates migration history, concluding that Indians did no lasting environmental damage. This conclusion is based on a characterization oftraditional su bsistence practices rather than ethnohistorical and ecological data, so an adequate assessment of possible environmental change is precluded. Indians are treated as a first wave of occupation rather than as continuous occupants. 34. Davis, Philip K. and Heather K. Hardy. "Absence of Noun Marking in Alabama." Internailimal Journal cl American Linguistics, 54 (1988), 279-309. Discussion of Alabama noun suffixes:.1, :.k, and :il, and the purposeful omission of these, toward a refined understanding of their semantic value. Informants were Cora Sylestine and Wanda Williams Poncho. 35. --- . "Nominal-Sentential Morphology in Alabama." Southwest Journal Q[ Linguistics. 7 (Fall 1984), 87-101. Investigation of the meaning of the suffixes :.1, :.k, and :il as they appear on both nouns and verbs in Alabama. 36. Densmore, Frances. "The Alabama Indians and Their Music." In Straight Thxas. Publications of the Texas Folklore Society, no. 13. Edited by J. Frank Dobie. Austin: Texas Folklore Society, 1937. pp. 270-293; rpt. Hatboro, Pennsylvania: Folklore Associates Inc., 1966. A synopsis of materials collected by Densmore in January 1933 for the Bureau of American Ethnology. She obtained sixty-two songs and several narratives from Chief Charles Martin Thompson in 5 Livingston. Twenty musical examples are transcribed, illustrating Buffalo, Corn, Duck, Chicken, Rabbit, Frog, Terrapin, Horse, Women's and Nateka dances. For each genre a brief discussion of form, melodic structure, and performance practice is given. Also included is a limited comparative analysis of Alabama music, an organology, and a version of the myth "The Visit to the Sky." The collection is prefaced by a historical resume after Swanton 1922 {159}, with recent history furnished by Hickman Chambers of the missionary family. 37. Dickerson, W.E.S. (W.E.S. FolsomDickerson). "Alabama-Coushatta Indians." In Handbook cl Thxali, Vol. 1. Edited by Walter Prescott Webb. Austin: Texas State Historical Association, 1952. pp.20-21. A concise and valuable overview of the Texas population distilled from the 1940 field study described in Folsom-Dickerson 1965 {48}. Many of the author'sobservations (on different levels of acculturation; on the role of consensus in tribal decision making) are unique and important toward an understanding of modern sociopolitical organization. 38. Dresel, Gustav. Houston Journal. Translated and edited by Max Freund. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1954. 168 pp. Reports location of the Alabama settlement Fenced-in Village circa 1830. 39. Duff, Gerald. Indian~. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983. 244 pp. Novel about a Texas Coushatta youth named Sam Houston Leaping Deer, and his encounter with the dominant society when he attends the University of Illinois on a basketball scholarship. The author demonstrates familiarity with locales and the social milieu around the reservation, and with tribal mythology as recorded by Howard Martin. Leaping Deer's mystic world view, however, must be regarded as exaggerated and stereo typic. 40. Edward, David B. Ih.e History Q.[ Iexa£. Cincinnati: J. A. James, 1836. 336 pp. Includes discussion of Colita, principal chief of the Coushattas in the 1830s. 41. Eilers, William, Jr. "Indians of Polk County." Frontier Iimes., 2 (February 1925), 14-15. This brief profile of the Alabamas was reprinted from the Houston Chronicle, December 7, 1924. The author states erroneously that the Alabamas were lumbermen early on and became farmers only after deforestation. He also provides the earliest published version of an often repeated and modified anecdote used to illustrate the Alabamas unwillingness to engage in disputes. 42. Emmons, Martha L. "The Texas Indian . Village." Naylor's Epic Century, 3 (July 1936), 29-31. Pleasant description of Indian lifeways from a 1936 visit to the Alabama-Coushatta village. The article concludes with two tales collected from Charles Martin Thompson: "Why the Terrapin's Back is Rough" and "How the Snake Got its Rattlers." 43. Fain, Anna Kilpatrick. Ih.e Alabama Indians in £clk County, Thxas. Livingston, Texas: Polk County Enterprise, 1948. 17 pp. 44. --- . Thxas. Indians--Ih.e S1ru:y Q.[ Indian Yillage and the Alabama Indians Q.[ fQlk County, Thxas. Livingston, Texas: n.p., 1960. 21 pp. This booklet presents a romantic interpretation of the history of the Alabamas and 6 Coushattas by the mother of Clem Fain, Jr., a lawyer and legislator who worked on behalf of the Tribe. The author's tone is paternalistic, and the balance of the work focuses on local white personalities involved in bettering the reservation. It is most useful to researchers as a record of these diligent advocates and as an artifact of Indian-white interaction. There are good photos of tribal leaders John Scott, Charles Martin Thompson, and Bronson Cooper Sylestine, the "white chief' Clem Fain, Jr., and Dr. and Mrs. Chambers, missionaries. It is incorrectly implied that John Blount, a Pakana Muskogee from Polk County, was an Alabama. The patchwork revisions in the later edition include an updated listing of reservation medical staff and other associated whites, new information on education, and the addition of a photo of Winifred Battise. Deleted is the statement "The State of Texas has shown its strong interest in their betterment by various appropriations" (1948:13). 45. Fain,ClemF.,Jr. "White Chiefs Tepee." EaS1 Thxas., (April 1928),28-29. A description of the 1928 journey of Chief Sunkee (Charles Martin Thompson), McConico Battise, and "white chief' Fain to Washington to successfully request an appropriation for the Alabamas: H. Report 5479 {181}. The article offers interesting details about the trip and testin10- ny, while Fain's writing style conveys his flair for public relations. Two rare photos, one of Fain and Sunkee, another of an unidentified Alabama man, are included. 46. Flores, Dan L., ed. Journal of an Indian Trader: Anthony Glass and the Texas Trading Frontier. 1790-1810. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1985. 158pp. Glass located Alabamas and Coushattas on the Red River northwest of Natchitoches in July 1808; a map of Glass's route shows their position. Sanchez y Tapia's watercolor of two Coushatta men is reproduced (cf. Berlandier 1969 {9}). 47. --- . "The Red River Branch of the AlabamaCoushatta Indians: An Ethnohistory." Southern Studies, 16 (Spring 1977), 55-72. A scholarly account of the sojourn of a group of Alabamas and Coushattas on the Red River in northwestern Louisiana ca. 1800-1830. Based on a careful reading of records by Indian Agent John Sibley and explorers Thomas Freeman and Peter Custis, this article refmes understanding of Alabama-Coushattamigration, contradicting Jacobson 1974 {80} on certain points. Documents cooperation with the Caddos, the establishment of trade with Natchitoches and Nacogdoches, and feuding with Americans, Osages, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. 48. Folsom-Dickerson, William Edwin Shepard. ~ Ylb.i1e.E.ath. San Antonio: Naylor Co., 1965. 148 pp. This anthropological work from the University of Texas is based on four months of participant observation in 1940. Son of a part Choctaw mother and Presbyterian minister father, the author entered the community through the church before living in the home of his principal informant, Speaker Chief McConico Battise. The author's aim of producing an acculturation study as conceptualized by Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits is not met, because the process he outlines is oversimplified, and because he does not relate much of the data he collected directly to the question of acculturation. In particular, the explana tion of rela tions between the Alabamas and Coushattas is simplistic. Unique and valuable information is contained here, however: 196 plant species, their Alabama and Coushatta names, and uses are identified (though the author's English glosses of native plant names are not exact); a linguistic sketch; 7 information on social organization; a detailed description oflog cabin building. 49. Fox, Vivian. ~ Windin~ Irail. Austin: Eakin Press, 1983. 99 pp. Subtitled "The Story of the AlabamaCoushatta Indians," this book is useful as an introduction to Indian culture for schoolchildren, but only if its material is selected and presented by an informed instructor. The author is usually sensitive, although there are some questionable statements, and the topics are organized in a confusing way. Contains twenty-seven photos and ten illustrations. 50. Franco, Jere. "The Alabama-Coushatta and Their Texas Friends." Eas.t Thxas. HistoricallilllI= n.al. 27 (Spring 1989), 31-43. A history of relations between the Alabamas and Coushattas and their white neighbors in the 1800's. Theauthorutiliz- . es primary and secondary sources in discussing a well-known seq uence in a precise and readable fashion . EsPecially helpful in explaining the dispositions and strategies of Houston, Lamar, and their Indian agents. The article is missing its last footnote. 51. "The Friendly Indians of Trinity River, in Texas." In Thxas. Almanac fur 18.61. Galveston: Richardson and Company, 1861. pp. 126-131. An anonymous but knowledgeable correspondent offers a view of tribal lifeways for an important and obscure period . Included are a good description of hunting and gardening practices, and references to the Mobilian and Servile Choctaw languages, sex roles, binge drinking, and wage work in the cotton fields of white farmers. 52. Garett, Julia Kathryn. "Doctor John Sibley and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, 1803-1814." Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 45 (January 1942), 286-301; 46 (January 1943), 272-277; 47 (January 1944), 319-324; 49 (January 1946), 399- 431; (April 1946),598-614. Sibley, an Indian agent and frontier entrepreneur, offers significant observations on the Alabamas and Coushattas. In letters . to Gen. Henry Dearborn he reports an episode in which Coushattas and Alabamas attack a group of Osages and retrieve horses stolen from the Caddos, as well as murders committed by a Coushatta at Natchitoches and Alabamas at Opelousas. His letters to the Secretary of War locate 400-600 Alabamas and Coushattas living near the Bay of St. Bernard, broach the need for relief of Louisiana Alabamas, and report Creek agitators among the two tribes. 53. __ . ~ El.ag ~ Iexas. Austin: Pemberton Press, 1969. 275 pp. Mentions efforts of Samuel Davenport to gain Coushatta ("Conchate") cooperation with the Republican Army of the North in 1812. 54. Garner, Patsy. "The Alabama Indians ." Thx.as. History Teachers's Bulletin, 12 (October 1924), 100-105. Brief sketch of Alabama history. A resident of Livingston, the author depends on oral reports and manuscripts from local whites, and newspaper articles. Contains false report that the Coushattas became extinct as a tribe, as well as contradictory statements about the tribe's reliance on agriculture. 55. Gatschet, Albert S. A Mi~ration Legend.Q[lh.e Cred Indians. Philadelphia: D.G. Brinton, 1884. 251 pp. Rpt. New York: AMS Press, 1969. 8 Includes a particularly detailed reconstruction of Alabama history in the early eighteenth century, plus information on the Coushatta, drawn from early chroniclers such as Albert Gallatin, Pierre Margry, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, and Benjamin Hawkins. 56. Gatschet, Albert, and Cyrus Thomas . "Alibamu." In Handbook cl American Indians NQ.nh cl Mexico, Vol. 1. Edited by Frederick Webb Hodge. Bureau of American Ethnology. Bulletin 30. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1907. pp.43-44. Brief entry which remains a dependable outline of Alabama history; useful for its tribal synonymy and bibliography of early sources. 57. Girvin, Eb Carl. "The Ecology of the Indian Reservation, Polk County, Texas." Master's thesis, University of Texas, 1941. 51 pp. Field study of reservation vegetation and determining physiographic features. Provides detailed information necessary for an understanding of reservation ecology. Includes a soil distribution map and photos showing plant communities and succession. An incomplete inventory of plant life lists 339 species. There is also a brief discussion of Alabama-Coushatta plant nomenclature, with examples. 58. Gordon, Jennifer. "Beyond the Sundown." Iexas. Highways, (June 1976), 12-14. Enthusiastic description of the now defunct outdoor pageant "Beyond the Sundown," which dramatized the early history of the Alabamas and Coushattas for visitors to the reservation tourist complex. 59. Gunter, Pete. ~.Big Thicket. New York: Jenkins Publishing Company, 1971. 172 pp. - Presents a brief record of AlabamaCoushatta history and gives sporadic references to natural resources on the reservation. Notes escape of an alligator from the tourist complex in 1970. 60. Haas, Mary R. "Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati." Lan2ua2e, 20 (1944), 142-149; rpt. in Lan~a2e in Culture and Society. Edited by Dell Hymes. New York: Harper and Row, 1964. pp. 228-233. Technical description of rules governing supposed morphemic differences between men's and women's speech in Koasati, with brief remarks on sociolinguistic patterns. Vestiges of sex differentiation in other Muskogean languages are pointed out, and comparison is made with other sex-differentiating languages of the Americas and Asia. Data was collected in Louisiana. A renewed discussion of this subject is pursued in Kimball 1987 {93}, 1990 {90} and Saville-Troike 1988 {153}. 61. Haggard, J. Villasana. "The Neutral Ground Between Louisiana and Texas, 1806-1821." Louisillilll Historical Quarterly, 28 (October 1945), 1001-1128. Excellent history of the buffer zone between New Spain and the United States which documents the role of the Alabamas and Coushattas as barrier populations between the two powers. 62. Hamilton, Peter J. Colonial Mobile. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1897. 446 pp. Based mainly on original sources, this history of the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin from 1519 to 1821 provides numerous references to the Alabamas (Alibamons) and Coushattas (Coosadas). A 1732 map locating the Alabamas is reproduced. 9 63. Hardy, Heather K. and Philip W. Davis. "Comparatives in Alabama." International Journal cl American Linguistics. 54 (1988), 209-231. Analysis of the four types of comparative constructions found in Alabama, which vary semantically and in degree of syn tactic complexity. Cora Sylestine and Wanda Williams Poncho served as consultants. 64. Hardy, Heather K. and Timothy R. Montier. "Alabama Radical Morphology: H-inlix and Disfixation." In In Honor ill Mm Haas. Edited by William Shipley. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1988. pp.377-41O. Discussion of three features carrying the nuance "more"--the infix LhL and two patterns of root modification via deletion-and the implications of these fea tures for linguistic theory. Principle informants were Cora Sylestine and Wanda Williams Poncho. 65. --- . "Imperfective Gemination in Alabama." International Journal cl American Linguistics. 54 (1988),399-415. Description of the gemination of consonants and vowels (vowel lengthening), which is morphemic in Alabama. 66. Harrigan, Stephen. "Bury my Heart at the Souvenir Shop." ~ Monthly, 3 (October 1975), 82-87. A sometimes sardonic report on the contemporary Alabama-Cousha ttas,focusing on the tourism business, softball, and a visit with Chief Fulton Battise. Includes some keen observations on everyday life on the reservation, and effectively conveys the journalist'S discomfort in the midst of an unfamiliar culture. 67. Harrington, M.R. "Among Louisiana Indians." Southern Workman, 37 (1908), 656-661. Description of an ethnologist's trip to record the conditions of remaining Louisiana Indians: Chitimachas, Houmas, Coushattas, and Alabamas. The article notes locations, populations, status of native languages and traditions. Documentation is provided for crafts, including split cane basketry and Spanish moss weaving, and blowgun use. Five photos are provided. 68. Hatcher, Mattie Alice Austin. Ih.e Opening ill Texas 1Q Foreign Settlement, 1801-1821. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1927. 368 pp. Notes the employment of Coushatta observers in East Texas by the Spanish governmen t. 69. "Heap Big Thicket Pow-wow, New Chief Installed." Texas Clubwoman, 43 (March 1970), 12. Notice of installation of Robert Fulton Battise as Mikko Choba or principal chief, following the death of Bronson Cooper Sylestine. 70. Heard, Elma. "Down the Moccasin Trail: A Study and Reshaping of Legends and Tales from the Alabama and Koasati Indians." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Denver, 1957. 92 pp. This study employs eleven Alabama and Coushatta stories to exemplify the use of common literary devices in American Indian texts. The author's approach appears unsophisticated in light of modern ethnopoetics; however, the variants given here are useful for comparison with those collected by Swanton {158, 165} and Martin {l18-121, 124}. Stories include "The Rescue of Sun," "How the Indians First Got Seed," "The White Squirrel," "The Celestial Skiff," "The Musical Stranger," "Big Man-eaterand thePersinlmon Tree," "Bead Splitter," "Mother Opossum and Tcukbilabila," "The Re- 10 morseful Terrapin," "Dog and Heron," and" The Monster." Heard's father's friend, Clem Fain, Jr., introduced her to the reservation, and she collected most of the variants in English from Charles Martin Thompson and Celestine during 1935- 1940. 71. --- . "Two Tales from the Alabamas." In Strai~ht fuas. Publications of the Texas Folklore Society, No. 13. Edited by J. Frank Dobie. Austin: Texas Folklore Society, 1937. pp. 294-297; rpt. Hatboro, Pennsylvania: Folklore Associates Inc., 1966. "How the Indians First Got Seed" and "The Dice Game," tales told by Chief Charles Martin Thompson and showing Biblical influence. A variant of the first tale was also collected from Thompson by Densmore (1937 {36}),and three versions of it appear in Swanton 1929 {165}. 72. Holley, Mary Austin. Ih.eill.asI2im, 1&& llJ.&. Edited by J.P. Bryan. Austin: The University of Texas Humanities Research Center, 1965. 120 pp. This dia ry by Stephen F. Austin's cousin contains a reference to Coushatta Indians protecting her brother's plantation in Fort Bend County, Texas, circa 1838. 73. Houston, Sam. Ih.e Writingsill.s.am Houston. Edited by Amelia W. Williams and Eugene C. Barker. 8 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1938-1943; rpt. Austin: Pemberton Press, 1970. Houston's letters in volumes 2, 4, 7, and 8 contain sporadic references to the Alabama and Coushattas (Coosattee, Cushattee, Coshattee) regarding their characteristics and land rights issues. Each volume contains an index listing the aforementioned tribal names. - - 74. Hudson, Charles. :I:M Southeastern Indians. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976. 573 pp. This well-assembled general reference contains a strong discussion of Creek history and culture within the culture area context, though there are few references to Alabamas and Coushattas specifically. 75. Hsu, Dick Ping. The Arthur Patterson~: A Mid-Nineteenth Century~, Sllil Jacinto County, llias. Survey No.5. Austin: Texas Historical Commission, Office of the State Archeologist, 1969. 50 pp. Report on the excavation of three probable Alabama or Coushatta burials from the mid-nineteenth century. Offers some analysis of remnant clothing, beads, metal ornaments, and ceramic grave goods. Indicates the degree of material acculturation in the period, and provides useful comparative material for understanding later burial practices at the reservation. 76. The Indian Papers clThxasand1h.e Southwest. 1825-]916. Edited by Dorman H. Winfrey and James M. Day. 5 Vols. Austin: The Pemberton Press, 1966. This comprehensive edition of Indian materials from the Texas State Archives includes important correspondence re garding Alabama-Coushatta tribal affairs and living conditions in each volume; the volumes are indexed separately. 77. "Indians of Polk County." Frontier~, 5 (October 1927), 30-31. Account (from the Dallas News) of a Texas Senate committee's fact-finding visit to the reservation in 1927 which helped precipitate reservation improvement. Includes names of the committee members and observations on living con- 11 ditions. See also Cogdell 1927 {27}, "Report of Committee II {146}. 78. Jacobson, Daniel. "Koasati Cultural Change." Ph.D. dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1954.231 pp. This study of the Louisiana community rests on the extremely thorough use of old historical sources, plus the author's fieldwork in the early 1950s and the unpublished materials of ethnographer Lyda Averill Taylor and missionary Paul Leeds. Creek culture circa 1750 is reconstructed and used as a baseline for discussing Coushatta culture change. This is a superb source of information on culture traits, and the bibliography is outstanding. Appendices list members of the Louisiana group for 1952 and give biographical sketches of Taylor's informants. Four maps are included. The original typescript contains twenty-three photos taken by Taylor in 1936-37. The lastthree pages of the main text are reduplicated in the original and there are numerous typographic errors. 79. --- . "The Origin of the Koasati Community of Louisiana." Ethnohistory, 7 (Spring 1960), 97-120. An ambitious history which identifies townsites and migra tion ofthe Cousha ttas from the Tennessee River drainage in 1540 to the Bayou Blue community near Elton in 1910. Remarks on Coushatta relations with colonial powers and the white settlers of Louisiana; however, the early history provided here is not entirely dependable, and the author's disregard of Smither 1932 {ISS} weakens his discussion of the Coushattas in Texas. More useful are the descriptions of the settlement pattern at Bayou Blue (with a map, dated 1935) and the advent ofa cash economy in the area. 80. --- . "Written Ethnological Report and Statement of Testimony: The Alabama-Coushatta Indians of Texas and the Coushatta Indians of Louisiana." In Alabama-Coushatta (Cre.d) Iruli:. ans. New York: Garland Publishing, 1974. pp. 25-178. Well-documented report to the Indian Claims Commission on Alabama and Coushatta occupation of Louisiana and Texas, with a transcription of accompanying spoken testimony on the development of tribal title in the states. Some points in this report are contradicted in Flores 1977 {47}. 81. Johnson, Bobby H. IM Coushatta People. Phoenix: Indian Tribal Series, 1976. 103 pp. Derivative but well-written and comprehensive culture history, with emphasis on the Louisiana community. Includes sixteen photos, two maps, and an illustration of the Louisiana Coushatta tribal seal. 82. Johnson, Kathryn S., and Paul Leeds. Patteran: ~ Li.fu and Works cl F.aul Lruls. San Antonio: Naylor Co., 1964. 162 pp. Biography of Congregational mimster Paul Leeds, who "zestfully waged war on coarseness, ignorance, and sin" (p. 3) for sixty-five years (1893-1958) among the Louisiana Coushattas. Johnson was a high school English teacher. The first half of the book is a narrative by Johnson, based on Leed's diary entries, while the second half consists of a series of memoirs written by Leeds in 1941 and edited by Johnson. Although there is little specific information about Indians in this work, it is a valuable look into the motivations and philosophy ofa missionary. Included are thirteen photos and a facsimile of the handwritten constitution of St. Peter's Congregational Church near Kinder. 12 83. Jones, Roy G. "The Semantics of -0- in Coushatta." In:l"MTwelfthLACUS Forum,l.2&5. Lake Bluff, Illinois: LACUS, 1986. pp. 306-314. Proposition of various meanings of the SUffIX :Q:., which include "new information," "emphasis," "identification," and "differentiation." 84. Journal cl1he Fourth Congress cl1he Republk clIuas, 1839-1840. 3 vols. Edited by Harriet Smither. Austin: Von Boeckmann Jones, 1931. Volumes 1 and 2, the Senate and House journals respectively, offer numerous references to an unsuccessful act to survey lands to be provided to the Alabamas and Coushattas. Volume 1 also reproduces Lamar's presidential message of 1839, in which he states his friendly disposition toward the tribes. 85. Kelly, Herman. "A Red Man in a White Man's World." Iuas Highways, (October 1971), 10-17. Instructive article for a general readership on modern-day Alabama-Coushatta life, mostly through the eyes of the Jack Battise family. 86. _m_. "Pow-wow." ~ Highways, 21 (May 1974),8-13. A story on the Fifth Annual AlabamaCoushatta Powwow written for a general audience, with excellent photos, significant for documenting Kiowa and Comanche influence on AlabamaCoushatta music and dance. 87. Kenney, M. M. "The History of the Indian Tribes of Texas." In A Comprehensjye History cl Iexas., 1685-1897, Vol. 1. Edited by Dudley G. Wooten. Dallas: Scharff, 1898. pp.717-783. Rpt: Texas State Historical Association 1986. - - Gives proftles of the Alabamas and Coushattas, with brief discussion of the Coushatta Trace and early hostilities in the region. The author notes that the Alabarnas are the more obscure of the two groups. His information in based on an 1831 report by J. Francisco Madero, commissioner of the State of Coahuila and Texas. Includes a map of tribal locations. 88. Kimball, Geoffrey. "A Descriptive Grammar ofKoasati." Ph.D. dissertation, Tulane University, 1985. 539 pp. The only extended work on the Koasati, this is a sophisticated description of phonology, verbs, nouns, pronouns, syntax, and semantics. Much attention is given to the complicated system of verb prefixes and suffixes. Speech styles appropriate to different oral genres, such as conversation or didactic narrative, are exemplified. The author also includes a historical sketch based on primary sources (which notes the etymology of Coushatta surnames), a summary on previous Coushatta linguistic work, six photos of informants, and a musical transcription of a Horse Dance song. Several mistakes occur in bibliographic citation. Principal consultants were Bel Abbey, Nora Abbey, Martha John, Ed John, and Ruth Poncho. Published in slightly revised form in 1990 {90}. 89. --- . "A Further Note on Koasati 'Men's' Speech." International Journal cl American Li.Il= guistics, 56 (January 1990), 158-162. Disputes the existence of a marked speech form for men in Koasati, as reported by Saville-Troike (1988). See also Kimball 1987 {93} and Haas 1944 {60}. 90. --- . Koasati Grammar. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990. 640 pp. 13 Published version of the author's doctoral dissertation {88}. 91. __ m. "Koasati Internal Change." Mid-AmeriQl Lin~uistics Conference Papers. Edited by David S. Rood. Boulder: University of Colorado Department of Linguistics, 1984. pp. 230-245. A study of internal modifications in Koasati verbs, which may indicate tense or aspect; both productive and obsolete changes are discussed (meanings of the latter are speculative). 92. _m_. "KoasatiReduplication." In InHonorQ.[ ~. Edited by William Shipley. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1988. pp.431-442. Study of two forms of syllable reduplication in Koasati verbs used to indicate continuous or punctual repetition of the action, with comparative comments on other Muskogean languages. 93. --- . "Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati: A Reappraisal." International Journal Q.[ Amerjcan Linguistics, 53 (1987), 30-38. The author reports that the "male" speech suffix described by Haas 1944 {60} is in fact a phrase terminal marker indicating the status, not sex, of the speaker. Its usage was not restricted to men, and while Haas wrote that usage was on the increase, Kimball found the element nearly obsolete. The data is from Louisiana consultants. 94. --- . "Peregrine Falcon and Great Horned Owl: Ego and Shadow in a Koasati Tale." Sm.uh: YLe.S.1 Journal Q.[Linguistics, 9 (1989), 45-74. Swanton's typescript of the Koasati myth text he called "The Pigeon Hawk's Gift" (Swanton 1929 {165}) is retranscribed for greater linguistic accuracy, and the characters are interpreted as representing Jungian archetypes. The article is important as the first psychological analysis of an Alabama or Coushatta oral narrative, and because it demonstrates deficiencies in the texts published by Swanton. 95. King, Willie Ford. "The Educational Growth of the Alabama and Coushatta Indians of East Texas." Master's thesis, Stephen F. Austin State University, 1949. 62 pp. Well-informed, intelligent study of efTorts to educate reservation children, from mission schooling in the 1880's to enrollment in area public schools in the 1940's. Offers transcriptions of interviews with several non-Indians associated with the reservation, including Mrs. C. W. Chambers (on her role as teacher), Presbyterian minister Oscar Landry, the dentist who served the reservation, and an office manager at W. T. Carter lumber company who employed many of the Indians. 96. Kniffen, Fred B., Hiram F. Gregory, and George A. Stokes. The Historic Indian ~ Q.[ Louisiana. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987. 324 pp. This excellent synthesis of standard and obscure sources and recent fieldwork findings discusses the Alabamas and Coushattas (Koasatis), among several groups. Material culture and social history receive ample attention, and a short view of current conditions among the Louisiana Coushatta is given. The references and annotations following each chapter, when taken together, afford an outstanding guide to the literature on Southeast Indians. 97. Koch, Clara Lena. "The Federal Indian Policy in Texas, 1845-1860." Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 28 (January 1925),223-234; (April 1925), 259-286; 29 (July 1925), 19-35; (October 1925), 98-127. 14 Includes discussion of the settlement of the Alabamas, Coushattas, and Muskogees in Polk County, with some inadequate references to cultural patterns of the tribes. Important mainly for placing Creek settlement in the context of variable federal policy toward Texas Indians. 98. Krzywicki, Ludwik. Primitive Society ami its Yi1.al Statistjcs. London: Macmillan, 1934. 576 pp. This study of the demographics of smallscale societies includes a compilation of Alabama (Alibamu) population figures from 1541 to 1910. 99. Kyzer, Willye Maye. "A Descriptive Study of the Speech of the Koasati Indians of Louisiana." Master's thesis, Louisiana State University, 1952. 172 pp. An examination of the English speech of the Louisiana Coushattas, detenniningthe influence of native language and regional dialects on their English phonology. Informants were Leona Abbey, Loris Abbot Langley, and Bertha John. The
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