| Summary: | The non-lethal effects of predation, i.e. predation risk, can significantly affect the prey population by inducing changes in behavior to reduce the risk of predation. Vigilance, hiding, and fleeing are common responses in order to lower predation risk while changes in habitat selection, habitat use, and changes in activity patterns are more severe changes and can profoundly affect prey fitness. Prey may begin to avoid habitats frequented by predators and may begin to reduce their activity during the time of day when predators are active. Human disturbance can be comparable to predation risk as it may induce similar changes in behavior. Therefore, human activity can be compared to predation risk even though the risk posed by humans may rarely be lethal. For many large vertebrates, however, humans do pose a direct and lethal threat. This is especially true for large predators whose severe decline has been attributed to centuries of persecution and habitat loss and whose populations have only recently began to increase following more favourable management plans and conservation efforts. Similarly, brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations have only recently began to increase in many parts of Europe and North America. In Finland brown bears survived extinction only in the wilderness areas in the north and in the east but have recolonized much of the country in the past decades. These solitary, opportunistic omnivores prefer forested habitats and usually try to avoid humans who they may view as predators. The limited availability of ideal habitats and extensive human activity means that bears may have to use spatio-temporal avoidance of humans rather than large scale spatial avoidance in order to reduce the risk of encountering humans. This should be evident in bear daybed selection whereby bears should select daybed sites away from human activity and select sites that provide good cover against humans while the bear rests during the day i.e. peak period of human activity. Additionally the daybed concealment should be ...
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