| Summary: | 1. In agriculture, both valuable ecosystem services and unwanted ecosystem disservices can be produced by the same organism group. For example, small rodents can provide biological control through weed seed consumption but may also act as pests, causing crop damage. 2. We studied the hypothesised causal relationships between ecosystem services (removal of weed seeds) and disservices (removal of wheat and crop damage) derived by small rodents (voles and mice) at multiple spatial scales. At the landscape scale, we studied the effects of landscape compositional and configurational heterogeneity along the former inner German border in east and west Germany on the abundance of voles and mice and their related ecosystem services and disservices. At the local scale, we studied how this abundance and ecosystem functions are affected by management intensity (organic vs. conventional winter wheat), associated differences in crop characteristics and edge effects. 3. Linear mixed effects models and path analysis show that voles drive ecosystem disservices, but not ecosystem services, in agricultural fields. Daily wheat seed removal by voles was influenced by increasing wheat height and was almost three times higher than weed seed removal, which was not related to local or landscape-scale effects. 4. Abundance of voles and associated crop damage decreased with lower crop density and higher wheat height, which were associated with organic farming. Abundance of voles and crop damage were highest in conventional fields in west Germany. 5. Synthesis and applications. As the ecosystem disservice of wheat seed consumption by voles and mice must be considered mainly during crop sowing, management before harvest should focus on decreasing the pest potential of voles’ but not mice. Our results suggest that densities of voles and their ecosystem disservices could be reduced by having fields with low crop density and high wheat height, practices associated with organic farming. Surrounding landscapes with low compositional and ...
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