Felis canadensis Kerr 1792
Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792 Canadian Lynx F [ elis ]. Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792:157. Type locality " Canada;" restricted to "Eastern Canada [= Quebec]" by Miller (1912:119). Felis canadensis : É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803:120. Name combination. Lynx canadensis : Rafinesque, 18...
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| Summary: | Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792 Canadian Lynx F [ elis ]. Lynx canadensis Kerr, 1792:157. Type locality " Canada;" restricted to "Eastern Canada [= Quebec]" by Miller (1912:119). Felis canadensis : É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803:120. Name combination. Lynx canadensis : Rafinesque, 1817:46. First use of current name combination. Felis borealis : Temminck, 1824:109. Name combination; part, not Felis borealis Thunberg, 1798. Lynx borealis canadensis : True, 1885:611. Name combination. Lynx subsolanus Bangs, 1897:49. Type locality "Codroy, Newfoundland." Lynx canadensis mollipilosus Stone, 1900:48. Type locality "Wainwright Inlet, Pt. Barrow, Alaska." [ Lynx canadensis ] subsolanus : Elliot, 1901:296. Name combination. Felis ( Lynx ) lynx canadensis : Kurtén and Rausch, 1959:44. Name combination. CONTEXT AND CONTENT. Order Carnivora, suborder Feliformia, family Felidae, subfamily Felinae, genus Lynx . Lynx currently contains four recognized species ( canadensis , lynx , pardinus , and rufus —Sunquist and Sunquist 2009; Kitchner 2017); a generic synonymy and key to the species of Lynx is provided in Larivière and Walton (1997). Three subspecies were recognized by Wozencraft (2005); however, Sunquist and Sunquist (2009) and Banfield (1974) recognized only two ( canadensis and subsolanus ). More recently, L . canadensis has been presented as monotypic by Kitchner et al. (2017) who interpreted the level of morphologic and genetic differences between the taxa as insufficient to support subspecific status for subsolanus and mollipilosus . The following three subspecies are those presented by Wozencraft (2005): L. c. canadensis Kerr, 1792:157. See above. L. c. mollipilosus Stone, 1900:48. See above. L. c. subsolanus Bangs, 1897:49. See above. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES. Since Kerr's 1792 description of Lynx canadensis its taxonomic placement has been questioned. During the 1970s through the 1990s, some researchers (Van Gelder 1977; Corbet 1978; Hemmer 1978; McKenna and Bell 1997; Groves 1982; McCord and Cardoza 1982; Tumlison 1987) thought that either data were insufficient or that differences between species were not great enough to warrant a separate genus and thus retained Lynx as a subspecies within Felis . Others (Matyushkin 1979; Hall 1981; Werdelin 1981; Garcia-Perea 1992; Wozencraft 1993) supported Lynx as a distinct genus. L . canadensis has been considered as conspecific with L . lynx (Kurtén and Rausch 1959; Weigel 1961; McCord and Cardoza 1982; Quinn and Parker 1987; Tumlison 1987) and as a distinct species (Matyushkin 1979; Kurtén and Anderson 1980; Werdelin 1981; Garcia Perea 1992; Wozencraft 1993). More recently Wozencraft (2005), in his revision of Carnivora, placed canadensis under Lynx along with L . lynx , L . pardinus , and L . rufus and Kitchner et al. (2017) in a revision of the Felidae presented L . canadensis as a monotypic species. Analyses using 16S rRNA and NADH-5 indicated that L. canadensis and L. lynx are sister taxa with an older ancestor common to L. rufus (Johnson and O'Brien 1997; Pecon-Slattery et al. 2004; Johnson et al. 2006). However, another analysis using a Y chromosome marker recovered a sister relationship between L. rufus and L. lynx to the exclusion of L. canadensis (Pecon-Slattery and O'Brien 1998). Lynx canadensis previously was described under Felis lynx (Tumlison 1987). Other vernacular names include Canada lynx, lynx du Canada (French), loup-cervier (French), pishu (Cree), lucivee, lynx, wildcat, link (Yukon Territory and InteriorAlaska), and lynx cat. DIAGNOSIS Lynx canadensis (Fig. 1) is the tallest lynx in North America and can be differentiated from the sympatric bobcat L . rufus by its larger size (head–body length 76.2–106.7 cm versus 65–105 cm in L . rufus —Sunquist and Sunquist 2009), its large, widely spreadable and furry feet (feet are smaller, <30 cm 2, and pads are naked in L . rufus ), longer legs (height at shoulder> 46 cm versus <45 cm for L . rufus ), longer ear tufts (> 2.5 cm versus <2.5 cm in L . rufus ), shorter tail (<0.5 length of hind foot versus> 0.5 length of hind foot in L . rufus ) and more imprecise spotting on the belly fur (Parker et al. 1983; Larivière and Walton 1997; Rezendes 1999). On average, L. canadensis is heavier (mean body weight, males: 10 kg; females: 8.5 kg) than L. rufus (mean body weight, males: 9.6 kg; females: 6.8 kg—Anderson and Lovallo 2003) although the opposite has been noted in some areas (Parker et al. 1983; Buskirk et al. 2000). The tip of the tail of L. canadensis is black all around and that of L. rufus is black on the dorsal surface only (Larivière and Walton 1997). Pelage of L. canadensis typically is more grayish (Werdelin 1981; Sunquist and Sunquist 2002; Anderson and Lovallo 2003; Hansen 2007). Because of geographic variation across populations and even within a single region, distinguishing the skull of L . canadensis from that of L . rufus and other felids often requires a combination of generalizations (characters that do not always hold across the entire geographic range) and specific measurements. The skull of L. canadensis (Fig. 2) differs from that of L. rufus by its typically larger size, relatively smaller auditory bullae, wider interorbital breadth (> 30 mm), larger presphenoid (> 6 mm at its widest portion), typically smaller and more anterior position of the postorbital processes of the frontal bones, longer upper carnassial (> 16 mm), and by the separation of the anterior condyloid foramen from the foramen lacerum (Jackson 1961; Hoffmeister 1989; Elbroch 2006). The skull of L. canadensis can typically be differentiated from other felids by the narrower nasal branch of the premaxilla, the thinner, less depressed, and sharper postorbital processes, less deeply notched suborbital margins of the palate, and closeness to the canine and more forward placement of the first large upper premolar (Pocock 1917a). GENERAL CHARACTERS Lynx canadensis is a medium-sized (6–14 kg) felid that possesses a round head, short nose, long, pointed ears, long limbs, large feet, and short tail (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Pelage is gray to silver-gray, with a blueish tinge in young animals. Summer pelage is darker (Saunders 1964). Some L . canadensis have the blue or dilute mutation characterized by bluish-gray replacing black in the pelage (Jones 1923; Schwarz 1938; Denis 1964). White fur occurs on eyelids, inside of ears, chin, throat, and dorsum. The outside fur of the ears is brown with a white central spot and the facial ruff is well developed (Hall 1981). Pads become fully furred in winter (Denis 1964). Males are larger than females. Mean (except where noted) body mass (kg; n , range or SD ) of L. canadensis males and females, respectively, was: 12.53 (7, 9.98–13.15), 10.14 (14, 8.16–11.11) in Alaska (Berrie 1971; Stephenson et al. 1991); 10.55 (5, 9.08–11.80), 8.70 (3, 7.50–9.50) in Alberta (van Zyll de Jong 1975); 15 (single male), 12.3 (2, 10.9, 13.6) in Manitoba (Carbyn and Patriquin 1983); 10.9 (7, 9.1–12.2), 9.9 (16, 5.4– 12.7) in Michigan (Erickson 1955; Beyer et al. 2001); 10.6 (18, 6.0–13.2), 9.1 (26, 5.9–15.0) in Minnesota (Mech 1977, 1980; Moen et al. 2010); mean not given (83, 4.1–9.0), mean not given (71, 2.2–8.2) in Nova Scotia (Parker et al. 1983); 9.05 (31, ± 1.19), 7.08 (15, ± 1.36) in the Northwest Territories (Murray and Boutin 1991; Poole et al. 1998); 12.3 (1), 8.6 (1) in Wisconsin (Schorger 1947; Doll et al. 1957); 10.7 (93, 6.4–17.3), 8.6 (91, 5.0–11.8) in Nova Scotia (Saunders 1964); and 11.3 (27, range not given), 10.0 (19, range not given) in Yukon (Slough and Mowat 1996; O'Donoghue et al. 1997). Additional body masses (kg) of individual L. canadensis were: 15.9 (adult, male) in British Columbia (Poszig et al. 2004); 12.3 (adult, male) in Iowa (Rasmussen 1969); 12.7 (adult, male) in Maine (Fuller 2004); 8.2 (kitten) in November in Manitoba (Carbyn and Patriquin 1983); 10.0 (adult, male), 7.0 (adult, female), 4.0 (juvenile, female) in Montana (Koehler et al. 1979); 15.0 (adult, male), 9.9 (kitten, male), 4.5 (kitten, female) in Wyoming (Blanchard 1959); 7.80 (yearling, female), 3.75 (kitten, male) in January, 3.75 (kitten, female) in January, 5.50 (kitten, female) in April, 6.80 in Yukon (O'Donoghue et al. 1995; Mowat and Slough 1998). Mean measurements (mm, n , range or SD ) of males and females, respectively, were: total length 1,030 (4, 995–1,050), 980 (7, 950–1,010); length of tail 140 (4, 100–150), 110 (8, 100– 140); length of hind foot 250 (4, 230–260), 230 (8, 220–240) in Alaska (Berrie 1971); total length 920 (12, 850–1,050), 860 (11, 780–950); length of tail 110 (12, 100–120), 100 (11, 80–110); length of hind foot 230 (12, 220–250), 220 (11, 210–240) in Alberta (van Zyll de Jong 1975); total length 892.6 (96, 736.6– 1,066.8), 844.0 (89, 762.0–965.2); length of tail 104.6 (96, 50.8–127.0), 97.0 (95, 76.2–121.9); length of hind foot 234.2 (95, 203.2–260.4), 223.0 (89, 190.5–247.7) in Newfoundland (Saunders 1964); height at chest 467 (30, ± 10.4), 422 (15, ± 6.3) in the Northwest Territories (Murray and Boutin 1991); total length 852.8 (120, ± 3.21), 812.7 (118, ± 3.00) in Ontario (Quinn and Gardner 1984). Hall (1981) presented the following ranges of measurements (mm, mixed sexes, sample size not specified): total length (825–954), length of tail (95–125), length of hind foot (203–250). Parker et al. (1983) reported the following ranges of measurements (mm) for 83 males and 71 females, respectively, from Nova Scotia: total length 770–950, 740–910; length of hind foot 132–158, 122–148; height at shoulder 430–530, 410–520. Additional measurements (mm) of individual L. canadensis were: total length 965.0 (adult, male), length of tail 152 (adult, male), length of hind foot 140 (adult, male) in Iowa (Rasmussen 1969); total length 1,219.2 (adult, male) in Michigan (Erickson 1955); total length 840.0 (adult, female), length of hind foot 220.0 (adult, female), length of ear 65.0 (adult, female), neck circumference 205.0 (adult, female) in Minnesota (Mech 1977); total length 830.0 (adult, female), length of hind foot 211.0 (adult, female), length of tail 90.0 (adult, female), length of ear 62 (adult, female) in Wisconsin (Doll et al. 1957); total length 978.0 (adult, male), length of hind foot 241.0 (adult, male), height of shoulder 603.0 (adult, male), length of ear tuft 48.0 (adult, male) in Wisconsin (Schorger 1947); total length 968.0 (kitten, male), 759.0 (kitten, female), length of tail 127.0 (kitten, male), 86.0 (kitten, female), length of hind foot 260.0 (kitten, male), 221.0 (kitten, female), length of ear 86.0 (kitten, male), 76.0 (kitten, female) in Wyoming (Blanchard 1959). Mean skull measurements (mm, n , range or SD ) of males and females, respectively, were: greatest length of skull 129 (23, ± 4.10), 122 (13, ± 2.95); basilar length 108 (24, ± 4.01), 101 (13, ± 2.48); zygomatic breadth 94 (24, ± 3.22), 89 (12, ± 1.89); maxillary toothrow 40 (24, ± 1.22), 37 (15, ± 0.86); canine width 35 (22, ± 2.75), 32 (15, ± 0.99) in Newfoundland (Saunders 1964); greatest length of skull130.28 (9, 117.41–135.82), 124.09 (9, 117.60– 129.30); condylobasal length 118.02 (125, 104.04–126.48), 112.86 (135, 98.99–126.24); basilar length, 106.62 (1), 102.61 (4, 99.49–105.66); palatilar length 47.56 (9, 41.94–49.54), 45.20 (9, 42.68–47.66); zygomatic breadth 91.84 (11, 83.02–96.50), 87.51 (13, 82.18–91.40); interorbital breadth 29.40 (11, 26.54–32.40), 27.83 (13, 25.83–30.18); braincase breadth 57.92 (10, 55.48– 60.30), 56.93 (13, 54.24–58.78); mastoidal breadth 55.21 (10, 49.52–59.04), 53.10 (9, 51.07–55.38); maxillary toothrow 39.69 (2, 39.1, 40.27), 40.46 (4, 39.19–42.90); mandible length 84.90 (10, 76.58–88.24), 81.95 (13, 78.50–87.14— Elbroch 2006). Hall (1981) presented the following ranges of skull measurements (mm, mixed sexes, sample size unknown) greatest length of skull (120– 136), zygomatic breadth (82–93), alveolar length of maxillary toothrow (38.1–41.6). In juveniles, the sagittal crest is not developed, the humerus is small (males <140 mm, females <125 mm), and the epiphyseal suture is not ossified (Saunders 1964). Foot measurements ( n , SD ) of males and females, respectively, were: foot area 286.4 cm 2 (30, ± 28.4), 275.6 cm 2 (15, ± 27.7) and footloading: 31.6 g /cm 2 (30, ± 5.2), 25.9 g /cm 2 (15, ± 5.5) for specimens in the Northwest Territories (Murray and Boutin 1991). DISTRIBUTION The geographic range of Lynx canadensis extends throughout the boreal forests of most of Canada and across the northern parts of the United States (Fig. 3). The northern distribution of L. canadensis is limited by tree line in Alaska, Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, and Yukon, whereas it is limited by snowfall and competition with L . rufus and the coyote Canis latrans in the south (Buskirk et al. 2000; Ruggiero et al. 2000). The northern limit of its range has not changed significantly for at least the past two centuries, but the southern limit has been pushed northward in the Great Plains, Ontario, and Quebec (Poole 2003). In Canada, L . canadensis is present in all provinces and territories except Prince Edward Island. It is also absent from mainland Nova Scotia, the Canadian west coast, and the southern Prairie. However, historically, L. canadensis occurred in mainland Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. In the continental United States, it was formerly found in 24 states and as far south as Utah during the mid-1800s (McKelvey et al. 2000a). Currently, L. canadensis only occurs in some southern extensions of boreal forest (McKelvey et al. 2000a; Hoving et al. 2003) in northern Maine, northern Minnesota, western Colorado, Northern Montana, Northern Idaho, north-central Washington, and north-central Oregon. L. canadensis individuals have been sighted in Nebraska, Vermont, and New Hampshire (Hoffman and Genoways 2005; Leon-Kilpatrick 2015). Except for Alaska where it is abundant, the largest populations in the United States are found in Maine and Montana. The occasional appearance of L. canadensis in other states probably represents an increase of dispersers from Canada during the peak of abundance (McKelvey et al. 2000a). FOSSIL RECORD There are two different hypotheses concerning lynx evolution, one based on fossils and morphology, and a more recent one based on genetics. The hypothesis based on fossils and morphology suggests that the genus Lynx probably originated in Africa during the early or mid-Pliocene (Werdelin 1981). The lynx ancestor, Lynx issiodorensis migrated into the Northern Hemisphere during the Villafranchian and gave rise to the Eurasian lynx L. lynx in Asia (Werdelin 1981). L. lynx then spread eastwards in North America giving rise to L. canadensis probably during the Sangamonian or the early Wisconsinan (Werdelin 1981). In contrast, the genetic hypothesis states that the genus Lynx probably originated in North America around 6.7 million years ago (Mattern and McLennan 2000; Johnson et al. 2006). A common ancestor to five felid lineages (domestic cat [ Felis ], leopard cat [ Otocolobus and Prionailurus ], lynx [ Lynx ], ocelot [ Leopardus ], and puma [ Acinonyx and Puma ]) migrated from Asia to North America across the Bering land bridge 8.5–8.0 million years ago (Janczewski et al. 1995; Johnson et al. 2006). This common ancestor gave rise to L. rufus 3.24 million years ago and then differentiated into L. canadensis and the progenitors of L. lynx and the Iberian lynx L. pardinus 1.61 million years ago (Johnson et al. 2006). Lynx canadensis was present in refugia in Beringia and south of the ice edge (Kurtén and Anderson 1980). The oldest fossil, found in the southern refugium, dates from the Sangamonian interglacial, 130,000–115,000 years ago (Kurtén and Anderson 1980). Fossils of L . canadensis are reported from the late Pleistocene deposits at Bighill Creek Formation and near Medicine Hat, Alberta (Wilson and Churcher 1984; Harrington 1990), near American Falls, Idaho (Pinsof 1998), near Silver Creek, Utah (Miller 1976), and from the Aftonian deposits near Delight, Washington (Fry and Gustafson 1974). L . canadensis started utilizing the snowshoe hare Lepus americanus as its main prey probably in the late Pleistocene or early Holocene (Breitenmoser et al. 1993). It probably immigrated to Newfoundland early in the postglacial period (Cameron 1958) but was rare until 1896 (Bergerud 1967). FORM AND FUNCTION Form. —Dental formula of Lynx canadensis is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 1/1 total of 28, and deciduous dentition formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 0/0 total of 24 (Saunders 1964). The external morphology of the brain, especially the position and shape of the sulci, is different from other species of felids (Radinsky 1975). L . canadensis seems to have a rounder and larger brain than most felids and the mean endocast volume of the brain of four specimens is 70 cm 3 (Radinsky 1975). The temporal ridges on the parietal bones have a lyre shape with a width of 72% and 69% of the braincase for males and females, respectively (Saunders 1964). In adults, the temporal ridges join together to form the sagittal crest (Saunders 1964). The sagittal crest and the lambdoidal ridge increase in dimension with age and size, the ossification of the humerus is completed by the end of the second year, and the skeletal growth of males around the 34th month (Saunders 1964). The auditory bulla is broader in the anterior portion of the inner chamber and narrower in its posterior portion compared to that of L. lynx (Pocock 1916). Lynx canadensis is digitigrade with sharp, retractile claws. Front and hind feet have four functional toes. The plantar pad of the front foot is short compared to its width and the claw sheaths are well developed. Toes are united by a deep web (Pocock 1917b). Female L. canadensis have four mammae (two inguinal and two abdominal) and males have a small baculum. Bregmatic bones occur rarely (1/472 and 0/617 museum specimens examined—Pratt 1942; Manville 1959). Function. —Basal metabolism in Lynx canadensis is similar in winter and summer (Casey et al. 1979). L . canadensis maintains its body temperature at 38.8°C and increases its respiratory frequency in response to increasing temperature ranging from 20 respirations per minute at −20°C to 30 respirations per minute at 20°C (Casey et al. 1979). Males have higher concentrations of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites at the onset of the breeding season, whereas the increase occurs toward the end of the breeding season for females (Fanson et al. 2012). The webbing uniting the toes helps L. canadensis walk on snow (Pocock 1917b). Males and fema : Published as part of LAvoiE, MAXiME, Renard, AURéLiE & LARivièRE, Serge, 2019, Lynx canadensis (Carnivora: Felidae), pp. 136-154 in Mammalian Species 51 (985) on pages 136-149, DOI: 10.1093/mspecies/sez019, http://zenodo.org/record/4573612 : {"references": ["KERR, R. 1792. The animal kingdom, or zoological system of the celebrated Sir Charles Linnaeus. Class 1. Mammalia. John Murray, London, United Kingdom.", "MILLER, G. S., JR. 1912. 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