Brown v. Board of Education
![The members of the U.S. Supreme Court that on May 17, 1954, ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Warren_Court_1953.jpg)
The case began in 1951 when the public school system in Topeka, Kansas, refused to enroll local black resident Oliver Brown's daughter at the school closest to their home, instead requiring her to ride a bus to a segregated black school farther away. The Browns and twelve other local black families in similar situations filed a class-action lawsuit in U.S. federal court against the Topeka Board of Education, alleging its segregation policy was unconstitutional. A special three-judge court of the U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas heard the case and ruled against the Browns, relying on the precedent of ''Plessy'' and its "separate but equal" doctrine. The Browns, represented by NAACP chief counsel Thurgood Marshall, then appealed the ruling directly to the Supreme Court.
In May 1954, the Supreme Court issued a unanimous 9–0 decision in favor of the Browns. The Court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," and therefore laws that impose them violate the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. However, the decision's 14 pages did not spell out any sort of method for ending racial segregation in schools, and the Court's second decision in ''Brown II'' (1955) only ordered states to desegregate "with all deliberate speed".
In the Southern United States, the reaction to ''Brown'' among most white people was "noisy and stubborn", especially in the "Deep South" where racial segregation was deeply entrenched in society. Many Southern governmental and political leaders embraced a plan known as "massive resistance", created by Senator Harry F. Byrd, in order to frustrate attempts to force them to de-segregate their school systems. Four years later, in the case of ''Cooper v. Aaron'', the Court reaffirmed its ruling in ''Brown'', and explicitly stated that state officials and legislators had no power to nullify its ruling. Provided by Wikipedia
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7by Dean, A. M., Brown, I. A., Huntley, B., Thomas, C. J.Get access
Published in International Journal of Remote Sensing (2006)
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8by Dean, A. M., Brown, I. A., Huntley, B., Thomas, C. J.Get access
Published in International Journal of Remote Sensing (2006)
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9by Clark, D. R., Brown, I. J., Rees, A. P., Somerfield, P. J., Miller, P. I.Get access
Published in Biogeosciences (2014)
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11by Aminjafari, S., Brown, I, A, Frappart, Frédéric, Papa, F., Blarel, Fabien, Mayamey, F, V, Jaramillo, F.Get access
Published in Water Resources Research (2024)
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12by Aminjafari, S., Brown, I, A, Frappart, Frédéric, Papa, F., Blarel, Fabien, Mayamey, F, V, Jaramillo, F.Get access
Published in Water Resources Research (2024)
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13by Aminjafari, S., Brown, I, A, Frappart, Frédéric, Papa, F., Blarel, Fabien, Mayamey, F, V, Jaramillo, F.Get access
Published in Water Resources Research (2024)
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14by Ribas-Ribas, Mariana, Rerolle, Victoire M. C., Bakker, Dorothee C. E., Kitidis, V., Lee, Gareth, Brown, I., Achterberg, Eric P., Hardman-Mountford, Nick, Tyrrell, TobyGet access
Published in Biogeosciences (2014)
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15by Ribas-Ribas, M., Rérolle, V. M. C., Bakker, D. C. E., Kitidis, V., Lee, G. A., Brown, I., Achterberg, Eric P., Hardman-Mountford, N. J., Tyrrell, T.Get access
Published in Biogeosciences (2014)
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16by Ribas-Ribas, M., Rérolle, V.M.C., Bakker, D.C.E., Kitidis, V., Lee, G.A., Brown, I., Achterberg, E.P., Hardman-Mountford, N.J., Tyrrell, T.Get access
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17by Fouchier, R. A. M., García-Sastre, A., Kawaoka, Y., Barclay, W. S., Bouvier, N. M., Brown, I. H., Capua, I., Chen, H., Compans, R. W., Couch, R. B., Mettenleiter, Thomas C.Get access
Published in Science (2013)
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18by Fujita, S., Holmlund, P., Andersson, I., Brown, I., Enomoto, H., Fujii, Y., Fujita, K., Fukui, K., Furukawa, T., Hansson, M., Hara, K., Hoshina, Y., Igarashi, M., Iizuka, Y., Imura, S., Ingvander, S., Karlin, T., Motoyama, H., Nakazawa, F., Oerter, H., Sjöberg, L. E., Sugiyama, S., Surdyk, S., Ström, J., Uemura, R., Wilhelms, F.Get access
Published in The Cryosphere (2011)
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19by Fujita, S., Holmlund, P., Andersson, I., Brown, I., Enomoto, H., Fujii, Y., Fujita, K., Fukui, K., Furukawa, T., Hansson, M., Hara, K., Hoshina, Y., Igarashi, M., Iizuka, Y., Imura, S., Ingvander, S., Karlin, T., Motoyama, H., Nakazawa, F., Oerter, H., Sjöberg, L. E., Sugiyama, S., Surdyk, S., Ström, J., Uemura, R., Wilhelms, F.Get access
Published in The Cryosphere (2018)
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20by Fujita, S., Holmlund, P., Andersson, I., Brown, I., Enomoto, H., Fujii, Y., Fujita, K., Fukui, K., Furukawa, T., Hansson, M., Hara, K., Hoshina, Y., Igarashi, M., Iizuka, Y., Imura, S., Ingwander, S., Karlin, T., Motoyama, H., Nakazawa, F., Oerter, Hans, Sjöberg, L. E., Sugiyama, S., Surdyk, S., Ström, J., Uemura, R., Wilhelms, FrankGet access
Published in The Cryosphere (2011)
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