Temperature
![Thermal vibration of a segment of protein's [[alpha helix]]. Its [[amplitude]] increases with temperature.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Thermally_Agitated_Molecule.gif)
Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making up a substance.Thermometers are calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have relied on various reference points and thermometric substances for definition. The most common scales are the Celsius scale with the unit symbol °C (formerly called ''centigrade''), the Fahrenheit scale (°F), and the Kelvin scale (K), the latter being used predominantly for scientific purposes. The kelvin is one of the seven base units in the International System of Units (SI).
Absolute zero, i.e., zero kelvin or −273.15 °C, is the lowest point in the thermodynamic temperature scale. Experimentally, it can be approached very closely but not actually reached, as recognized in the third law of thermodynamics. It would be impossible to extract energy as heat from a body at that temperature.
Temperature is important in all fields of natural science, including physics, chemistry, Earth science, astronomy, medicine, biology, ecology, material science, metallurgy, mechanical engineering and geography as well as most aspects of daily life. Provided by Wikipedia
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121by Stohl, A., Aamaas, B., Amann, M., Baker, L. H., Bellouin, N., Berntsen, T. K., Boucher, Olivier, Cherian, R., Collins, W., Daskalakis, Nikolaos, Dusinska, M., Eckhardt, S., Fuglestvedt, J. S., Harju, M., Heyes, C., Hodnebrog, Ø., Hao, J., Im, U., Kanakidou, M., Klimont, Z., Kupiainen, K., Law, Kathy S., Lund, M. T., Maas, R., Macintosh, C. R., Myhre, G., Myriokefalitakis, S., Olivié, D., Quaas, J., Quennehen, Boris, Raut, Jean-Christophe, Rumbold, S. T., Samset, B. H., Schulz, M, Seland, Ø., Shine, K. P., Skeie, R. B., Wang, S., Yttri, K. E., Zhu, T.Contributors: “...Institute of Chemical Engineering and High Temperature Chemical Processes, (FORTH/ICE-HT)...”
Published in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (2015)
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122by Uemura, Ryu, Motoyama, Hideaki, Masson-Delmotte, Valérie, Jouzel, Jean, Kawamura, Kenji, Goto-Azuma, Kumiko, Fujita, Shuji, Kuramoto, Takayuki, Hirabayashi, Motohiro, Miyake, Takayuki, Ohno, Hiroshi, Fujita, Koji, Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Iizuka, Yoshinori, Horikawa, Shinichiro, Igarashi, Makoto, Suzuki, Keisuke, Suzuki, Toshitaka, Fujii, YoshiyukiContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Nature Communications (2018)
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123by Stohl, A., Aamaas, B., Amann, M., Baker, L. H., Bellouin, N., Berntsen, T. K., Boucher, Olivier, Cherian, R., Collins, W., Daskalakis, Nikolaos, Dusinska, M., Eckhardt, S., Fuglestvedt, J. S., Harju, M., Heyes, C., Hodnebrog, Ø., Hao, J., Im, U., Kanakidou, M., Klimont, Z., Kupiainen, K., Law, Kathy S., Lund, M. T., Maas, R., Macintosh, C. R., Myhre, G., Myriokefalitakis, S., Olivié, D., Quaas, J., Quennehen, Boris, Raut, Jean-Christophe, Rumbold, S. T., Samset, B. H., Schulz, M, Seland, Ø., Shine, K. P., Skeie, R. B., Wang, S., Yttri, K. E., Zhu, T.Contributors: “...Institute of Chemical Engineering and High Temperature Chemical Processes, (FORTH/ICE-HT)...”
Published in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (2015)
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124by Uemura, Ryu, Motoyama, Hideaki, Masson-Delmotte, Valérie, Jouzel, Jean, Kawamura, Kenji, Goto-Azuma, Kumiko, Fujita, Shuji, Kuramoto, Takayuki, Hirabayashi, Motohiro, Miyake, Takayuki, Ohno, Hiroshi, Fujita, Koji, Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Iizuka, Yoshinori, Horikawa, Shinichiro, Igarashi, Makoto, Suzuki, Keisuke, Suzuki, Toshitaka, Fujii, YoshiyukiContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Nature Communications (2018)
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125by Uemura, Ryu, Motoyama, Hideaki, Masson-Delmotte, Valérie, Jouzel, Jean, Kawamura, Kenji, Goto-Azuma, Kumiko, Fujita, Shuji, Kuramoto, Takayuki, Hirabayashi, Motohiro, Miyake, Takayuki, Ohno, Hiroshi, Fujita, Koji, Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Iizuka, Yoshinori, Horikawa, Shinichiro, Igarashi, Makoto, Suzuki, Keisuke, Suzuki, Toshitaka, Fujii, YoshiyukiContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Nature Communications (2018)
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126by Uemura, Ryu, Motoyama, Hideaki, Masson-Delmotte, Valérie, Jouzel, Jean, Kawamura, Kenji, Goto-Azuma, Kumiko, Fujita, Shuji, Kuramoto, Takayuki, Hirabayashi, Motohiro, Miyake, Takayuki, Ohno, Hiroshi, Fujita, Koji, Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Iizuka, Yoshinori, Horikawa, Shinichiro, Igarashi, Makoto, Suzuki, Keisuke, Suzuki, Toshitaka, Fujii, YoshiyukiContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Nature Communications (2018)
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127by Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien, Gagliardini, Olivier, Nodet, Maëlle, Ritz, Catherine, Durand, Gaël, Zwinger, Thomas, Seddik, Hakime, Greve, RalphContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2010
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128by Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien, Gagliardini, Olivier, Nodet, Maëlle, Ritz, Catherine, Durand, Gaël, Zwinger, Thomas, Seddik, Hakime, Greve, RalphContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2010
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129by Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien, Gagliardini, Olivier, Nodet, Maëlle, Ritz, Catherine, Durand, Gaël, Zwinger, Thomas, Seddik, Hakime, Greve, RalphContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2011
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130by Williams, Guy Darvall, Nicol, Stephen, Aoki, Shigeru, Meijers, Andrew J. S., Bindoff, Nathaniel L., Iijima, Yuji, Marsland, Simon J., Klocker, AndreasContributors: “...Institute for Low Temperature Science...”
Published in Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography (2010)
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131by Li, Hao, Andujar, Joan, Slodczyk, Aneta, de Sousa Meneses, Domingos, Scaillet, Bruno, Echegut, Patrick, Biren, Jonas, Oppenheimer, CliveContributors: “...Conditions Extrêmes et Matériaux : Haute Température et Irradiation (CEMHTI)...”
Published in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing (2022)
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132by Li, Hao, Andujar, Joan, Slodczyk, Aneta, de Sousa Meneses, Domingos, Scaillet, Bruno, Echegut, Patrick, Biren, Jonas, Oppenheimer, CliveContributors: “...Conditions Extrêmes et Matériaux : Haute Température et Irradiation (CEMHTI)...”
Published in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing (2022)
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133by Li, Hao, Andujar, Joan, Slodczyk, Aneta, de Sousa Meneses, Domingos, Scaillet, Bruno, Echegut, Patrick, Biren, Jonas, Oppenheimer, CliveContributors: “...Conditions Extrêmes et Matériaux : Haute Température et Irradiation (CEMHTI)...”
Published in IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing (2022)
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134by Williams, Guy Darvall, Nicol, Stephen, AOKI, Shigeru, Meijers, Andrew J. S., Bindoff, Nathaniel L., Iijima, Yuji, Marsland, Simon J., Klocker, AndreasContributors: “...Institute for Low Temperature Science...”
Published in Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography (2010)
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135by Lieser, J. L., Curran, M. A. J., Bowie, A. R., Davidson, A. T., Doust, S. J., Fraser, A. D., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Massom, R. A., Meiners, K. M., Melbourne-Thomas, J., Reid, P. A., Strutton, P. G., Vance, T. R., Vancoppenolle, M., Westwood, K. J., Wright, S. W.Contributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2015
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136by Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien, Gagliardini, Olivier, Nodet, Maëlle, Ritz, Catherine, Durand, Gaël, Zwinger, Thomas, Seddik, Hakime, Greve, RalphContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2010
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137by Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien, Gagliardini, Olivier, Nodet, Maëlle, Ritz, Catherine, Durand, Gaël, Zwinger, Thomas, Seddik, Hakime, Greve, RalphContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2010
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138by Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien, Gagliardini, Olivier, Nodet, Maëlle, Ritz, Catherine, Durand, Gaël, Zwinger, Thomas, Seddik, Hakime, Greve, RalphContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2011
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139by Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien, Gagliardini, Olivier, Nodet, Maëlle, Ritz, Catherine, Durand, Gaël, Zwinger, Thomas, Seddik, Hakime, Greve, RalphContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2011
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140by Lieser, J. L., Curran, M. A. J., Bowie, A. R., Davidson, A. T., Doust, S. J., Fraser, A. D., Galton-Fenzi, B. K., Massom, R. A., Meiners, K. M., Melbourne-Thomas, J., Reid, P. A., Strutton, P. G., Vance, T. R., Vancoppenolle, M., Westwood, K. J., Wright, S. W.Contributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published 2015
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