Temperature
![Thermal vibration of a segment of protein's [[alpha helix]]. Its [[amplitude]] increases with temperature.](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Thermally_Agitated_Molecule.gif)
Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making up a substance.Thermometers are calibrated in various temperature scales that historically have relied on various reference points and thermometric substances for definition. The most common scales are the Celsius scale with the unit symbol °C (formerly called ''centigrade''), the Fahrenheit scale (°F), and the Kelvin scale (K), the latter being used predominantly for scientific purposes. The kelvin is one of the seven base units in the International System of Units (SI).
Absolute zero, i.e., zero kelvin or −273.15 °C, is the lowest point in the thermodynamic temperature scale. Experimentally, it can be approached very closely but not actually reached, as recognized in the third law of thermodynamics. It would be impossible to extract energy as heat from a body at that temperature.
Temperature is important in all fields of natural science, including physics, chemistry, Earth science, astronomy, medicine, biology, ecology, material science, metallurgy, mechanical engineering and geography as well as most aspects of daily life. Provided by Wikipedia
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281by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, Van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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282by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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283by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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284by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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285by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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286by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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287by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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288by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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289by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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290by Miller, Lisa A., Fripiat, François, Else, Brent G.T., Bowman, Jeff S., Brown, Kristina A., Collins, R. Eric, Ewert, Marcela, Fransson, Agneta, Gosselin, Michel, Lannuzel, Delphine, Meiners, Klaus M., Michel, Christine, Nishioka, Jun, Nomura, Daiki, Papadimitriou, Stathys, Russell, Lynn M., Sørensen, Lise Lotte, Thomas, David N., Tison, Jean-Louis, van Leeuwe, Maria A., Vancoppenolle, Martin, Wolff, Eric W., Zhou, JiayunContributors: “...Institute of Low Temperature Science Sapporo...”
Published in Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene (2015)
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291by Edwards, Tamsin L., Nowicki, Sophie M.J., Marzeion, Ben, Hock, Regine, Goelzer, Heiko, Seroussi, Hélène, Jourdain, Nicolas, Slater, Donald A., Turner, Fiona E., Smith, Christopher J., Mckenna, Christine M., Simon, Erika G., Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Gregory, Jonathan M., Larour, Eric Y., Lipscomb, William H., Payne, Antony J., Shepherd, Andrew P., Agosta, Cécile, Alexander, Patrick M., Albrecht, Torsten, Anderson, Brian M., Asay-Davis, Xylar S., Aschwanden, Andy, Barthel, Alice M., Bliss, Andrew K., Calov, Reinhard, Chambers, Christopher, Champollion, Nicolas, Choi, Youngmin, Cullather, Richard I., Cuzzone, Joshua K., Dumas, Christophe, Felikson, Denis, Fettweis, Xavier, Fujita, Koji, Galton-Fenzi, Benjamin K., Gladstone, Rupert M.M., Golledge, Nicholas R., Greve, Ralf, Hattermann, Tore, Hoffman, Matthew J., Humbert, Angelika, Huss, Matthias, Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, Walter Willem (walter), Kleiner, Thomas, Kraaijenbrink, Philip D.A., Le Clec’h, Sébastien, Lee, Victoria, Leguy, Gunter R., Little, Christopher M., Lowry, Daniel P., Malles, Jan Hendrik, Martin, Daniel F., Maussion, Fabien, Morlighem, Mathieu, O’neill, James F., Nias, Isabel J., Pattyn, Frank, Pelle, Tyler, Price, Stephen F., Quiquet, Aurélien, Radić, Valentina, Reese, Ronja, Rounce, David Robert, Rückamp, Martin, Sakai, Akiko, Shafer, Courtney, Schlegel, Nicole Jeanne, Shannon, Sarah R., Smith, Robin S., Straneo, Fiamma, Sun, Sainan, Tarasov, Lev, Trusel, Luke D., van Breedam, Jonas, van de Wal, Roderick S.W., van den Broeke, M. R., Winkelmann, Ricarda, Zekollari, Harry, Zhao, Chen, Zhang, Tong, Zwinger, ThomasContributors: “... Temperature Science (ILTS), and by the Arctic Challenge for Sustainability (ArCS, ArCS II) project...”
Published in Nature (2021)
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292by Edwards, Tamsin L., Nowicki, Sophie M.J., Marzeion, Ben, Hock, Regine, Goelzer, Heiko, Seroussi, Hélène, Jourdain, Nicolas, Slater, Donald A., Turner, Fiona E., Smith, Christopher J., Mckenna, Christine M., Simon, Erika G., Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Gregory, Jonathan M., Larour, Eric Y., Lipscomb, William H., Payne, Antony J., Shepherd, Andrew P., Agosta, Cécile, Alexander, Patrick M., Albrecht, Torsten, Anderson, Brian M., Asay-Davis, Xylar S., Aschwanden, Andy, Barthel, Alice M., Bliss, Andrew K., Calov, Reinhard, Chambers, Christopher, Champollion, Nicolas, Choi, Youngmin, Cullather, Richard I., Cuzzone, Joshua K., Dumas, Christophe, Felikson, Denis, Fettweis, Xavier, Fujita, Koji, Galton-Fenzi, Benjamin K., Gladstone, Rupert M.M., Golledge, Nicholas R., Greve, Ralf, Hattermann, Tore, Hoffman, Matthew J., Humbert, Angelika, Huss, Matthias, Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, Walter Willem (walter), Kleiner, Thomas, Kraaijenbrink, Philip D.A., Le Clec’h, Sébastien, Lee, VictoriaContributors: “... Temperature Science (ILTS), and by the Arctic Challenge for Sustainability (ArCS, ArCS II) project...”
Published in Nature (2021)
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293by Edwards, Tamsin L., Nowicki, Sophie M.J., Marzeion, Ben, Hock, Regine, Goelzer, Heiko, Seroussi, Hélène, Jourdain, Nicolas, Slater, Donald A., Turner, Fiona E., Smith, Christopher J., McKenna, Christine M., Simon, Erika G., Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Gregory, Jonathan M., Larour, Eric Y., Lipscomb, William H., Payne, Antony J., Shepherd, Andrew P., Agosta, Cécile, Alexander, Patrick M., Albrecht, Torsten, Anderson, Brian M., Asay-Davis, Xylar S., Aschwanden, Andy, Barthel, Alice M., Bliss, Andrew K., Calov, Reinhard, Chambers, Christopher, Champollion, Nicolas, Choi, Youngmin, Cullather, Richard I., Cuzzone, Joshua K., Dumas, Christophe, Felikson, Denis, Fettweis, Xavier, Fujita, Koji, Galton-Fenzi, Benjamin K., Gladstone, Rupert M.M., Golledge, Nicholas R., Greve, Ralf, Hattermann, Tore, Hoffman, Matthew J., Humbert, Angelika, Huss, Matthias, Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, Walter Willem (Walter), Kleiner, Thomas, Kraaijenbrink, Philip D.A., Le clec’h, Sébastien, Lee, VictoriaContributors: “... Temperature Science (ILTS), and by the Arctic Challenge for Sustainability (ArCS, ArCS II) project...”
Published in Nature (2021)
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294by Edwards, Tamsin L., Nowicki, Sophie M.J., Marzeion, Ben, Hock, Regine, Goelzer, Heiko, Seroussi, Hélène, Jourdain, Nicolas, Slater, Donald A., Turner, Fiona E., Smith, Christopher J., Mckenna, Christine M., Simon, Erika G., Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Gregory, Jonathan M., Larour, Eric Y., Lipscomb, William H., Payne, Antony J., Shepherd, Andrew P., Agosta, Cécile, Alexander, Patrick M., Albrecht, Torsten, Anderson, Brian M., Asay-Davis, Xylar S., Aschwanden, Andy, Barthel, Alice M., Bliss, Andrew K., Calov, Reinhard, Chambers, Christopher, Champollion, Nicolas, Choi, Youngmin, Cullather, Richard I., Cuzzone, Joshua K., Dumas, Christophe, Felikson, Denis, Fettweis, Xavier, Fujita, Koji, Galton-Fenzi, Benjamin K., Gladstone, Rupert M.M., Golledge, Nicholas R., Greve, Ralf, Hattermann, Tore, Hoffman, Matthew J., Humbert, Angelika, Huss, Matthias, Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, Walter Willem (walter), Kleiner, Thomas, Kraaijenbrink, Philip D.A., Le Clec’h, Sébastien, Lee, Victoria, Leguy, Gunter R., Little, Christopher M., Lowry, Daniel P., Malles, Jan Hendrik, Martin, Daniel F., Maussion, Fabien, Morlighem, Mathieu, O’neill, James F., Nias, Isabel J., Pattyn, Frank, Pelle, Tyler, Price, Stephen F., Quiquet, Aurélien, Radić, Valentina, Reese, Ronja, Rounce, David Robert, Rückamp, Martin, Sakai, Akiko, Shafer, Courtney, Schlegel, Nicole Jeanne, Shannon, Sarah R., Smith, Robin S., Straneo, Fiamma, Sun, Sainan, Tarasov, Lev, Trusel, Luke D., van Breedam, Jonas, van de Wal, Roderick S.W., van den Broeke, M. R., Winkelmann, Ricarda, Zekollari, Harry, Zhao, Chen, Zhang, Tong, Zwinger, ThomasContributors: “... Temperature Science (ILTS), and by the Arctic Challenge for Sustainability (ArCS, ArCS II) project...”
Published in Nature (2021)
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295by Edwards, Tamsin L., Nowicki, Sophie M.J., Marzeion, Ben, Hock, Regine, Goelzer, Heiko, Seroussi, Hélène, Jourdain, Nicolas, Slater, Donald A., Turner, Fiona E., Smith, Christopher J., Mckenna, Christine M., Simon, Erika G., Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Gregory, Jonathan M., Larour, Eric Y., Lipscomb, William H., Payne, Antony J., Shepherd, Andrew P., Agosta, Cécile, Alexander, Patrick M., Albrecht, Torsten, Anderson, Brian M., Asay-Davis, Xylar S., Aschwanden, Andy, Barthel, Alice M., Bliss, Andrew K., Calov, Reinhard, Chambers, Christopher, Champollion, Nicolas, Choi, Youngmin, Cullather, Richard I., Cuzzone, Joshua K., Dumas, Christophe, Felikson, Denis, Fettweis, Xavier, Fujita, Koji, Galton-Fenzi, Benjamin K., Gladstone, Rupert M.M., Golledge, Nicholas R., Greve, Ralf, Hattermann, Tore, Hoffman, Matthew J., Humbert, Angelika, Huss, Matthias, Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, Walter Willem (walter), Kleiner, Thomas, Kraaijenbrink, Philip D.A., Le Clec’h, Sébastien, Lee, Victoria, Leguy, Gunter R., Little, Christopher M., Lowry, Daniel P., Malles, Jan Hendrik, Martin, Daniel F., Maussion, Fabien, Morlighem, Mathieu, O’neill, James F., Nias, Isabel J., Pattyn, Frank, Pelle, Tyler, Price, Stephen F., Quiquet, Aurélien, Radić, Valentina, Reese, Ronja, Rounce, David Robert, Rückamp, Martin, Sakai, Akiko, Shafer, Courtney, Schlegel, Nicole Jeanne, Shannon, Sarah R., Smith, Robin S., Straneo, Fiamma, Sun, Sainan, Tarasov, Lev, Trusel, Luke D., van Breedam, Jonas, van de Wal, Roderick S.W., van den Broeke, M. R., Winkelmann, Ricarda, Zekollari, Harry, Zhao, Chen, Zhang, Tong, Zwinger, ThomasContributors: “... Temperature Science (ILTS), and by the Arctic Challenge for Sustainability (ArCS, ArCS II) project...”
Published in Nature (2021)
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296by Edwards, Tamsin L., Nowicki, Sophie M.J., Marzeion, Ben, Hock, Regine, Goelzer, Heiko, Seroussi, Hélène, Jourdain, Nicolas, Slater, Donald A., Turner, Fiona E., Smith, Christopher J., Mckenna, Christine M., Simon, Erika G., Abe-Ouchi, Ayako, Gregory, Jonathan M., Larour, Eric Y., Lipscomb, William H., Payne, Antony J., Shepherd, Andrew P., Agosta, Cécile, Alexander, Patrick M., Albrecht, Torsten, Anderson, Brian M., Asay-Davis, Xylar S., Aschwanden, Andy, Barthel, Alice M., Bliss, Andrew K., Calov, Reinhard, Chambers, Christopher, Champollion, Nicolas, Choi, Youngmin, Cullather, Richard I., Cuzzone, Joshua K., Dumas, Christophe, Felikson, Denis, Fettweis, Xavier, Fujita, Koji, Galton-Fenzi, Benjamin K., Gladstone, Rupert M.M., Golledge, Nicholas R., Greve, Ralf, Hattermann, Tore, Hoffman, Matthew J., Humbert, Angelika, Huss, Matthias, Huybrechts, P., Immerzeel, Walter Willem (walter), Kleiner, Thomas, Kraaijenbrink, Philip D.A., Le Clec’h, Sébastien, Lee, Victoria, Leguy, Gunter R., Little, Christopher M., Lowry, Daniel P., Malles, Jan Hendrik, Martin, Daniel F., Maussion, Fabien, Morlighem, Mathieu, O’neill, James F., Nias, Isabel J., Pattyn, Frank, Pelle, Tyler, Price, Stephen F., Quiquet, Aurélien, Radić, Valentina, Reese, Ronja, Rounce, David Robert, Rückamp, Martin, Sakai, Akiko, Shafer, Courtney, Schlegel, Nicole Jeanne, Shannon, Sarah R., Smith, Robin S., Straneo, Fiamma, Sun, Sainan, Tarasov, Lev, Trusel, Luke D., van Breedam, Jonas, van de Wal, Roderick S.W., van den Broeke, M. R., Winkelmann, Ricarda, Zekollari, Harry, Zhao, Chen, Zhang, Tong, Zwinger, ThomasContributors: “... Temperature Science (ILTS), and by the Arctic Challenge for Sustainability (ArCS, ArCS II) project...”
Published in Nature (2021)
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