Rock (geology)
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In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects.
Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting.
Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. Modern technology has allowed the development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete. Provided by Wikipedia
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2141by Son, Seok-Woo, Han, Bo-Reum, Garfinkel, Chaim I., Kim, Seo-Yeon, Park, Rokjin, Abraham, N. Luke, Akiyoshi, Hideharu, Archibald, Alexander T., Butchart, N., Chipperfield, Martyn P., Dameris, Martin, Deushi, Makoto, Dhomse, Sandip S., Hardiman, Steven C., Jöckel, Patrick, Kinnison, Douglas, Michou, Martine, Morgenstern, Olaf, MO'Connor, Fiona, Oman, Luke D., Plummer, David A., Pozzer, Andrea, Revell, Laura E., Rozanov, Eugene, Stenke, Andrea, Stone, Kane, Tilmes, Simone, Yamashita, Yousuke, Zeng, GuangGet access
Published 2018
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2142by Hungate, Bruce A, Marks, Jane C, Power, Mary E, Schwartz, Egbert, van Groenigen, Kees Jan, Blazewicz, Steven J, Chuckran, Peter, Dijkstra, Paul, Finley, Brianna K, Firestone, Mary K, Foley, Megan, Greenlon, Alex, Hayer, Michaela, Hofmockel, Kirsten S, Koch, Benjamin J, Mack, Michelle C, Mau, Rebecca L, Miller, Samantha N, Morrissey, Ember M, Propster, Jeffrey R, Purcell, Alicia M, Sieradzki, Ella, Starr, Evan P, Stone, Bram WG, Terrer, César, Pett-Ridge, JenniferGet access
Published 2021
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2143by Bruce A. Hungate, Jane C. Marks, Mary E. Power, Egbert Schwartz, Kees Jan van Groenigen, Steven J. Blazewicz, Peter Chuckran, Paul Dijkstra, Brianna K. Finley, Mary K. Firestone, Megan Foley, Alex Greenlon, Michaela Hayer, Kirsten S. Hofmockel, Benjamin J. Koch, Michelle C. Mack, Rebecca L. Mau, Samantha N. Miller, Ember M. Morrissey, Jeffrey R. Propster, Alicia M. Purcell, Ella Sieradzki, Evan P. Starr, Bram W. G. Stone, César Terrer, Jennifer Pett-RidgeGet access
Published in mBio (2021)
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2144by Hungate, Bruce A, Marks, Jane C, Power, Mary E, Schwartz, Egbert, van Groenigen, Kees Jan, Blazewicz, Steven J, Chuckran, Peter, Dijkstra, Paul, Finley, Brianna K, Firestone, Mary K, Foley, Megan, Greenlon, Alex, Hayer, Michaela, Hofmockel, Kirsten S, Koch, Benjamin J, Mack, Michelle C, Mau, Rebecca L, Miller, Samantha N, Morrissey, Ember M, Propster, Jeffrey R, Purcell, Alicia M, Sieradzki, Ella, Starr, Evan P, Stone, Bram WG, Terrer, César, Pett-Ridge, JenniferGet access
Published 2021
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2145by Son, Seok-Woo, Han, Bo-Reum, Garfinkel, Chaim I., Kim, Seo-Yeon, Park, Rokjin, Abraham, N. Luke, Akiyoshi, Hideharu, Archibald, Alexander T., Butchart, N., Chipperfield, Martyn P., Dameris, Martin, Deushi, Makoto, Dhomse, Sandip S., Hardiman, Steven C., Jöckel, Patrick, Kinnison, Douglas, Michou, Martine, Morgenstern, Olaf, MO'Connor, Fiona, Oman, Luke D., Plummer, David A., Pozzer, Andrea, Revell, Laura E., Rozanov, Eugene, Stenke, Andrea, Stone, Kane, Tilmes, Simone, Yamashita, Yousuke, Zeng, GuangGet access
Published 2018
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2146by Son, Seok-Woo, Han, Bo-Reum, Garfinkel, Chaim I, Kim, Seo-Yeon, Park, Rokjin, Abraham, N Luke, Akiyoshi, Hideharu, Archibald, Alexander T, Butchart, N, Chipperfield, Martyn P, Dameris, Martin, Deushi, Makoto, Dhomse, Sandip S, Hardiman, Steven C, Jöckel, Patrick, Kinnison, Douglas, Michou, Martine, Morgenstern, Olaf, O’Connor, Fiona M, Oman, Luke D, Plummer, David A, Pozzer, Andrea, Revell, Laura E, Rozanov, Eugene, Stenke, Andrea, Stone, Kane, Tilmes, Simone, Yamashita, Yousuke, Zeng, GuangGet access
Published in Environmental Research Letters (2018)
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2147by Hungate, Bruce A., Marks, Jane C., Power, Mary E., Schwartz, Egbert, van Groenigen, Kees Jan, Blazewicz, Steven J., Chuckran, Peter, Dijkstra, Paul, Finley, Brianna K., Firestone, Mary K., Foley, Megan, Greenlon, Alex, Hayer, Michaela, Hofmockel, Kirsten S., Koch, Benjamin J., Mack, Michelle C., Mau, Rebecca L., Miller, Samantha N., Morrissey, Ember M., Propster, Jeffrey R., Purcell, Alicia M., Sieradzki, Ella, Starr, Evan P., Stone, Bram W. G., Terrer, César, Pett-Ridge, JenniferGet access
Published in mBio (2021)
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2148by Daniels, W. M., Mitchell, J. W., Stone, E. C., Binns, W. R., Braun, D. L., Murphy, R. P., Mewaldt, R. A., Hahne, D. J., Brandt, T. J., Israel, M. H., Klemic, J., Wiedenbeck, M. E., Labrador, A. W., Waddington, C. J., Fitzsimmons, S. P., Hams, T., Link, J. T., Ward, J. E., Moore, P., Sasaki, M., San Sebastian, F., Bose, R. G., Olevitch, M. A., Simburger, G. E., DowKonnt, P. F., Rauch, B. F., Sakai, K.Get access
Published 2014
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2149by Hams, T., Binns, W. R., Bose, R. G., Braun, D. L., Brandt, T. J., Daniels, W. M., Dowkontt, P. F., Fitzsimmons, S. P., Hahne, D. J., Israel, M. H., Klemic, J., Labrador, A. W., Link, J. T., Mewaldt, R. A., Mitchell, J. W., Moore, P., Murphy, R. P., Olevitch, M. A., Rauch, B. F., Sakai, K., San Sebastian, F., Sasaki, M., Simburger, G. E., Stone, E. C., Waddington, C. J., Ward, J. E., Wiedenbeck, M. E.Get access
Published 2015
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2150by Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove, Cai, Rongshuo, Poloczanska, Elvira S, Brewer, Peter G, Sundby, Svein, Hilmi, Karim, Fabry, Victoria J, Jung, Sukgeun, Skirving, William, Stone, Daithi, Burrows, Michael T, Bell, Johann, Cao, Long, Donner, Simon, Eakin, C Mark, Eide, Arne, Halpern, Benjamin, McClain, Charles R, O'Connor, Mary I, Parmesan, Camille, Perry, R Ian, Richardson, Anthony J, Brown, Christopher J, Schoeman, David, Signorini, Sergio, Sydeman, William, Zhang, Rui, van Hooidonk, Ruben, McKinnell, Stewart MGet access
Published 2014
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2151by Hams, T., Binns, W. R., Bose, R. G., Braun, D. L., Brandt, T. J., Daniels, W. M., Dowkontt, P. F., Fitzsimmons, S. P., Hahne, D. J., Israel, M. H., Klemic, J., Labrador, A. W., Link, J. T., Mewaldt, R. A., Mitchell, J. W., Moore, P., Murphy, R. P., Olevitch, M. A., Rauch, B. F., Sakai, K., San Sebastian, F., Sasaki, M., Simburger, G. E., Stone, E. C., Waddington, C. J., Ward, J. E., Wiedenbeck, M. E.Get access
Published in Proceedings of The 34th International Cosmic Ray Conference — PoS(ICRC2015) (2015)
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2152by Tomasi, Claudio, Vitale, Vito, Lupi, Angelo, Di Carmine, C., Campanelli, Monica, Herber, Andreas, Treffeisen, Renate, Stone, Robert S., Andrews, Elisabeth, Sharma, Sangeeta, Radionov, Vladimir, Hoyningen-Huene, Wolfgang Von, Stebel, Kerstin, Hansen, Georg, Myhre, Cathrine Lund, Wehrli, Christoph J., Aaltonen, Veijo, Lihavainen, Heikki, Virkkula, Aki, Hillamo, Risto, Ström, Johan, Toledano, Carlos, Cachorro, Victoria E., Ortiz de Galisteo, José Pablo, Frutos Baraja, Ángel Máximo de, Blindheim, S., Frioud, Max, Gausa, Michael, Zielinski, Tymon, Petelski, Tomasz, Yamanouchi, TakashiGet access
Published in Journal of Geophysical Research (2007)
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2153by Larry D. Hinzman, Neil D. Bettez, W. Robert Bolton, F. Stuart Chapin, Mark B. Dyurgerov, Chris L. Fastie, Brad Griffith, Robert D. Hollister, Allen Hope, Henry P. Huntington, Anne M. Jensen, Gensuo J. Jia, Torre Jorgenson, David R. Klein, Walter C. Oechel, Thomas E. Osterkamp, Charles H. Racine, Vladimir E. Romanovsky, Robert S. Stone, Douglas A. Stow, Matthew Sturm, Craig E. Tweedie, George L. Vourlitis, Marilyn D. Walker, Donald A. Walker, Patrick J. Webber, Jeffrey M. Welker, Kevin S. WinkerGet access
Published 2005
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2154by Larry D. Hinzman, Neil D. Bettez, W. Robert Bolton, F. Stuart Chapin, Mark B. Dyurgerov, Chris L. Fastie, Brad Griffith, Robert D. Hollister, Allen Hope, Henry P. Huntington, Anne M. Jensen, Gensuo J. Jia, Torre Jorgenson, David R. Klein, Walter C. Oechel, Thomas E. Osterkamp, Charles H. Racine, Vladimir E. Romanovsky, Robert S. Stone, Douglas A. Stow, Matthew Sturm, Craig E. Tweedie, George L. Vourlitis, Marilyn D. Walker, Donald A. Walker, Patrick J. Webber, Jeffrey M. Welker, Kevin S. WinkerGet access
Published 2005
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2155by J. Hansen, M. Sato, R. Ruedy, P. Kharecha, A. Lacis, R. Miller, L. Nazarenko, K. Lo, G. A. Schmidt, G. Russell, I. Aleinov, S. Bauer, E. Baum, B. Cairns, V. Canuto, M. Chandler, Y. Cheng, A. Cohen, A. Del Genio, G. Faluvegi, E. Fleming, A. Friend, T. Hall, C. Jackman, J. Jonas, M. Kelley, N. Y. Kiang, D. Koch, G. Labow, J. Lerner, S. Menon, T. Novakov, V. Oinas, Ja. Perlwitz, Ju. Perlwitz, D. Rind, A. Romanou, R. Schmunk, D. Shindell, P. StoneGet access
Published 2007
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2156by Walsh, Nathan Elliot, Akaike, Yosui, Binns, Walter Robert, Bose, Richard G., Brandt, Terri J., Braun, Dana L., Cannady, Nicholas W., Dowkontt, Paul F., Hams, Thomas, Israel, Martin H., Krizmanic, John F., Labrador, Allan W., Mewaldt, Richard A., Mitchell, John W., Murphy, Ryan P., de Nolfo, Georgia A., Nutter, Scott, Olevitch, Martin A., Rauch, Brian. F., Sakai, Kenichi, Sasaki, Makoto, Simburger, Garry E., Stone, Ed C., Tatoli, Teresa, Ward, John Ennis, Wiedenbeck, Mark E., Zober, Wolfgang V.Get access
Published in Advances in Space Research (2022)
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2157by Walsh, Nathan Elliot, Akaike, Yosui, Binns, Walter Robert, Bose, Richard G., Brandt, Terri J., Braun, Dana L., Cannady, Nicholas W., Dowkontt, Paul F., Hams, Thomas, Israel, Martin H., Krizmanic, John F., Labrador, Allan W., Mewaldt, Richard A., Mitchell, John W., Murphy, Ryan P., de Nolfo, Georgia A., Nutter, Scott, Olevitch, Martin A., Rauch, Brian. F., Sakai, Kenichi, Sasaki, Makoto, Simburger, Garry E., Stone, Ed C., Tatoli, Teresa, Ward, John Ennis, Wiedenbeck, Mark E., Zober, Wolfgang V.Get access
Published in Advances in Space Research (2022)
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2158by Tomasi, Claudio, Kokhanovsky, Alexander A., Lupi, Angelo, Ritter, Christoph, Smirnov, Alexander, O'Neill, Norman T., Stone, Robert S., Holben, Brent N., Nyeki, Stephan, Wehrli, Christoph, Stohl, Andreas, Mazzola, Mauro, Lanconelli, Christian, Vitale, Vito, Stebel, Kerstin, Aaltonen, Veijo, de Leeuw, Gerrit, Rodriguez, Edith, Herber, Andreas B., Radionov, Vladimir F., Zielinski, Tymon, Petelski, Tomasz, Sakerin, Sergey M., Kabanov, Dmitry M., Xue, Yong, Mei, Linlu, Istomina, Larysa, Wagener, Richard, McArthur, Bruce, Sobolewski, Piotr S., Kivi, Rigel, Courcoux, Yann, Larouche, Pierre, Broccardo, Stephen, Piketh, Stuart J.Get access
Published in Earth-Science Reviews (2023)
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2159by Snider, Graydon, Weagle, Crystal L., Murdymootoo, Kalaivani K., Ring, Amanda, Ritchie, Yvonne, Stone, Emily, Walsh, Ainsley, Akoshile, Clement, Anh, Nguyen Xuan, Balasubramanian, Rajasekhar, Brook, Jeff, Qonitan, Fatimah D., Dong, Jinlu, Griffith, Derek, He, Kebin, Holben, Brent N., Kahn, Ralph, Lagrosas, Nofel, Lestari, Puji, Ma, Zongwei, Misra, Amit, Norford, Leslie K., Quel, Eduardo J., Salam, Abdus, Schichtel, Bret, Segev, Lior, Tripathi, Sachchida, Wang, Chien, Yu, Chao, Zhang, Qiang, Zhang, Yuxuan, Brauer, Michael, Cohen, Aaron, Gibson, Mark D., Liu, Yang, Martins, J. Vanderlei, Rudich, Yinon, Martin, Randall V.Get access
Published in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (2018)
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2160by G. Snider, C. L. Weagle, K. K. Murdymootoo, A. Ring, Y. Ritchie, E. Stone, A. Walsh, C. Akoshile, N. X. Anh, R. Balasubramanian, J. Brook, F. D. Qonitan, J. Dong, D. Griffith, K. He, B. N. Holben, R. Kahn, N. Lagrosas, P. Lestari, Z. Ma, A. Misra, L. K. Norford, E. J. Quel, A. Salam, B. Schichtel, L. Segev, S. Tripathi, C. Wang, C. Yu, Q. Zhang, Y. Zhang, M. Brauer, A. Cohen, M. D. Gibson, Y. Liu, J. V. Martins, Y. Rudich, R. V. MartinGet access
Published in Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (2016)
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