Rock (geology)
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In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the asthenosphere. The study of rocks involves multiple subdisciplines of geology, including petrology and mineralogy. It may be limited to rocks found on Earth, or it may include planetary geology that studies the rocks of other celestial objects.
Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Igneous rocks are formed when magma cools in the Earth's crust, or lava cools on the ground surface or the seabed. Sedimentary rocks are formed by diagenesis and lithification of sediments, which in turn are formed by the weathering, transport, and deposition of existing rocks. Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks are subjected to such high pressures and temperatures that they are transformed without significant melting.
Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. This early period, called the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. Mining developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals. Modern technology has allowed the development of new human-made rocks and rock-like substances, such as concrete. Provided by Wikipedia
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1981by Li, C., Michel, C., Graff, L. S., Bethke, I., Zappa, Giuseppe, Bracegirdle, T. J., Fischer, E., Harvey, Ben, Iversen, T., King, M. P., Krishnan, H., Lierhammer, L., Mitchell, D., Scinocca, J., Shiogama, H., Stone, D. A., Wettstein, J. J.Get access
Published in Earth System Dynamics (2018)
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1982by Koenig, S.J., Dolan, A.M., de Boer, B., Stone, E.J., Hill, D.J., DeConto, R. M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Lunt, D.J., Pollard, D., Quiquet, A., Saito, F., Savage, J., van de Wal, R.Get access
Published in Climate of the Past (2015)
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1983by P. Edwards, R. Commane, T. Ingham, D. Stone, A. S. Mahajan, H. Oetjen, J. M. C. Plane, D. E. Heard, M. J. Evans, J. R. Dorsey, J. R. Hopkins, J. D. Lee, S. J. Moller, L. J. Carpenter, R. LeighGet access
Published 2011
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1984by Edwards, P., Commane, R., Ingham, T., Stone, D., Mahajan, A. S., Oetjen, H., Plane, J. M. C., Heard, D. E., Evans, M. J., Dorsey, J. R., Hopkins, J. R., Lee, J. D., Moller, S. J., Carpenter, L. J., Leigh, R.Get access
Published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (2012)
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1985by P. Bakker, V. Masson Delmotte, B. Martrat, S. Charbit, H. Renssen, M. Gröger, U. Krebs Kanzow, G. Lohman, D. J. Lunt, M. Pfeiffer, S. J. Phipps, M. Prange, S. P. Ritz, M. Schulz, E. J. Stone, V. Varma, STENNI, BARBARAContributors: “...E. J., Stone...”
Published in Quaternary Science Reviews (2014)
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1986by Stohl, A., Andrews, E., Burkhart, J. F., Forster, C., Herber, Andreas, Hoch, S. W., Kowal, D., Lunder, C., Mefford, T., Orgren, J. A., Sharma, S., Spichtinger, N., Stebel, K., Stone, R., Ström, J., Tørseth, K., Wehrli, C., Yttri, K. E.Get access
Published in Journal of Geophysical Research (2006)
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1987by Bakker, P., Masson-Delmotte, V., Martrat, B., Charbit, S., Renssen, H., Gröger, M., Krebs-Kanzow, U., Lohmann, G., Lunt, D. J., Pfeiffer, M., Phipps, S. J., Prange, M., Ritz, S. P., Schulz, M., Stenni, B., Stone, E. J., Varma, V.Get access
Published in Quaternary Science Reviews (2014)
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1988by Nicolas, Julien P., Vogelmann, Andrew M., Scott, Ryan C., Wilson, Aaron B., Cadeddu, Maria P., Bromwich, David H., Verlinde, Johannes, Lubin, Dan, Russell, Lynn M., Jenkinson, Colin, Powers, Heath H., Ryczek, Maciej, Stone, Gregory, Wille, Jonathan D.Get access
Published in Nature Communications (2017)
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1989by Nicolas, Julien P., Vogelmann, Andrew M., Scott, Ryan C., Wilson, Aaron B., Cadeddu, Maria P., Bromwich, David H., Verlinde, Johannes, Lubin, Dan, Russell, Lynn M., Jenkinson, Colin, Powers, Heath H., Ryczek, Maciej, Stone, Gregory, Wille, Jonathan D.Get access
Published in Nature Communications (2017)
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1990by Julien P. Nicolas, Andrew M. Vogelmann, Ryan C. Scott, Aaron B. Wilson, Maria P. Cadeddu, David H. Bromwich, Johannes Verlinde, Dan Lubin, Lynn M. Russell, Colin Jenkinson, Heath H. Powers, Maciej Ryczek, Gregory Stone, Jonathan D. WilleGet access
Published in Nature Communications (2017)
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1991by Nicolas, Julien P, Vogelmann, Andrew M, Scott, Ryan C, Wilson, Aaron B, Cadeddu, Maria P, Bromwich, David H, Verlinde, Johannes, Lubin, Dan, Russell, Lynn M, Jenkinson, Colin, Powers, Heath H, Ryczek, Maciej, Stone, Gregory, Wille, Jonathan DGet access
Published 2017
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1992by Nicolas, Julien P., Vogelmann, Andrew M., Scott, Ryan C, Wilson, Aaron B., Cadeddu, Maria P., Bromwich, David H., Verlinde, Johannes, Lubin, Dan, Russell, Lynn M., Jenkinson, Colin, Powers, Heath H., Rcyzek, Maciej, Stone, Gregory, Wille, Jonathan D.Get access
Published in Nature Communications (2023)
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1993by Nicolas, Julien P., Vogelmann, Andrew M., Scott, Ryan C., Wilson, Aaron B., Cadeddu, Maria P., Bromwich, David H., Verlinde, Johannes, Lubin, Dan, Russell, Lynn M., Jenkinson, Colin, Powers, Heath H., Ryczek, Maciej, Stone, Gregory, Wille, Jonathan D.Get access
Published in Nature Communications (2023)
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1994by Brovkin, Victor, Brücher, Tim, Kleinen, Thomas, Zaehle, Sonke, Joos, Fortunat, Roth, Raphael, Spahni, Renato, Schmitt, Jochen, Fischer, Hubertus, Leuenberger, Markus, Stone, Emma J, Ridgwell, Andy J, Chappellaz, Jerome, Kehrwald, Natalie, Barbante, Carlo, Blunier, Thomas, Dahl Jensen, DortheGet access
Published in Quaternary Science Reviews (2016)
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1995by Bakker, P., Masson-Delmotte, V., Martrat, B., Charbit, S., Renssen, H., Groeger, M., Krebs-Kanzow, U., Lohmann, G., Lunt, D. J., Pfeiffer, M., Phipps, S. J., Prange, M., Ritz, S. P., Schulz, M., Stenni, B., Stone, E. J., Varma, V.Get access
Published in Quaternary Science Reviews (2014)
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1996by Nicolas, Julien P., Vogelmann, Andrew M., Scott, Ryan C., Wilson, Aaron B., Cadeddu, Maria P., Bromwich, David H., Verlinde, Johannes, Lubin, Dan, Russell, Lynn M., Jenkinson, Colin, Powers, Heath H., Ryczek, Maciej, Stone, Gregory, Wille, Jonathan D.Get access
Published in Nature Communications (2024)
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1997by P. Bakker, V. Masson Delmotte, B. Martrat, S. Charbit, H. Renssen, M. Gröger, U. Krebs Kanzow, G. Lohman, D. J. Lunt, M. Pfeiffer, S. J. Phipps, M. Prange, S. P. Ritz, M. Schulz, E. J. Stone, V. Varma, STENNI, BarbaraContributors: “...E. J., Stone...”
Published in Quaternary Science Reviews (2014)
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1998by Anglin, Deidre M., Espinosa, Adriana, Addington, Jean, Cadenhead, Kristin S., Cannon, Tyrone D., Cornblatt, Barbara A., Keshavan, Matcheri, Mathalon, Daniel H., Perkins, Diana O., Stone, William, Tsuang, Ming, Woods, Scott W., Walker, Elaine, Bearden, Carrie E., Ku, Benson S.Get access
Published in JAMA Psychiatry (2023)
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1999by Barreto Velasco, África, Cuevas Agulló, Emilio, Granados-Muñoz, María José, Alados Arboledas, Lucas, Romero Campos, Pedro Miguel, Gröbner, Julian, Kouremeti, Natalia, Almansa Rodríguez, Antonio Fernando, Stone, Tom, Sorokin, Mikhail, Holben, Brent N., Canini, Marius, Yela González, MargaritaGet access
Published 2015
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2000by C. Li, C. Michel, L. Seland Graff, I. Bethke, G. Zappa, T. J. Bracegirdle, E. Fischer, B. J. Harvey, T. Iversen, M. P. King, H. Krishnan, L. Lierhammer, D. Mitchell, J. Scinocca, H. Shiogama, D. A. Stone, J. J. WettsteinGet access
Published in Earth System Dynamics (2018)
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