Steel
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Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels, which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation, typically need an additional 11% chromium.
Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations.
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.
Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel. This was followed by the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th century, and then by the open-hearth furnace. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought iron. The German states were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centered in Pittsburgh, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Cleveland until the late 20th century.
Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and greenhouse gas emission intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally. Provided by Wikipedia
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161by Carroll, E.L., Childerhouse, S.J., Fewster, R.M., Patenaude, N.J., Steel, D., Dunshea, G., Boren, L., Baker, C.S.Get access
Published in Ecological Applications (2013)
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162by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, HOYT, ERICH, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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163by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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164by Jackson, Jennifer A., Steel, Debbie J., Beerli, P., Congdon, Bradley C., Olavarría, C., Leslie, Matthew S., Pomilla, C., Rosenbaum, H., Baker, C. S.Get access
Published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (2014)
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167by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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168by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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169by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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170by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
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171by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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172by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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173by Richard, Gaëtan, Titova, Olga, Fedutin, Ivan, Steel, Debbie, Meschersky, Ilya, Hautin, Marie, Burdin, Alexander, Hoyt, Erich, Filatova, Olga, Jung, Jean-LucGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2018)
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174by 中野渡 拓也, 川口 悠介, Jinlun Zhang, Micheal Steel, 伊東 素代, 渡邉 英嗣, 西野 茂人, 堀 正岳, 菊地 隆, 猪上 淳, NakanowatarI Takuya, KawaguchI Yusuke, Zhang Jinlun, Steel Micheal, Itoh Motoyo, Watanabe Eiji, Nishino Shigeto, Hori Masatake, Kikuchi Takashi, Inoue JunGet access
Published 2016
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176by Carpenter, G. Iain, Hirdes, John P., Ribbe, Miel W., Ikegami, N., Challis, David J., Steel, R. Knight, Bernabei, Roberto, Fries, Brant E.Get access
Published 1999
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177by Keith M. Hernandez, Kaimyn B. O'Neill, Eleanor K. Bors, Debbie Steel, Joseph A. Zoller, Rochelle Constantine, Steve Horvath, C. Scott BakerGet access
Published in Ecology and Evolution (2023)
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178by Hernandez, Keith M., O'Neill, Kaimyn B., Bors, Eleanor K., Steel, Debbie, Zoller, Joseph A., Constantine, Rochelle, Horvath, Steve, Baker, C. ScottGet access
Published in Ecology and Evolution (2023)
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179by Dick, Dorothy M., Walbridge, Shaun, Wright, Dawn J., Calambokidis, John, Falcone, Erin A., Steel, Debbie, Follett, Tomas, Holmberg, Jason, Baker, C. ScottGet access
Published in Transactions in GIS (2014)
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180by Jackson, Jennifer A., Steel, Debbie J., Beerli, P., Congdon, Bradley C., Olavarría, Carlos, Leslie, Matthew S., Pomilla, Cristina, Rosenbaum, Howard, Baker, C. ScottGet access
Published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (2014)
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