Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons.Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels, which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation, typically need an additional 11% chromium.
Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations.
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.
Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel. This was followed by the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th century, and then by the open-hearth furnace. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought iron. The German states were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centered in Pittsburgh, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Cleveland until the late 20th century.
Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and greenhouse gas emission intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally. Provided by Wikipedia
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301by Riekkola, L., Zerbini, A. N., Andrews, O., Andrews-Goff, V., Baker, C. S., Chandler, D., Childerhouse, S., Clapham, P., Dodemont, R., Donnelly, D., Friedlaender, A., Gallego, R., Garrigue, Claire, Ivashchenko, Y., Jarman, S., Lindsay, R., Pallin, L., Robbins, J., Steel, D., Tremlett, J., Vindenes, S., Constantine, R.Get access
Published 2018
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302by Riekkola, L., Zerbini, A., Andrews, O., Andrews-Goff, V., Baker, C., Chandler, D., Childerhouse, S., Clapham, P., Dodémont, R., Donnelly, D., Friedlaender, A., Gallego, R., Garrigue, C., Ivashchenko, Y., Jarman, Simon, Lindsay, R., Pallin, L., Robbins, J., Steel, D., Tremlett, J., Vindenes, S., Constantine, R.Get access
Published in Ecological Indicators (2018)
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303by Faria, Drienne Messa, Steel, Debbie, Baker, C. Scott, da Silva, José Martins, de Meirelles, Ana Carolina Oliveira, Souto, Luciano Raimundo Alardo, Siciliano, Salvatore, Barbosa, Lupércio Araujo, Secchi, Eduardo, Di Tullio, Juliana Couto, de Oliveira, Larissa Rosa, Ott, Paulo Henrique, Farro, Ana Paula CazertaGet access
Published in PLOS ONE (2022)
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304by Leena Riekkola, Alexandre N. Zerbini, Olive Andrews, Virginia Andrews-Goff, Scott Baker, Simon Childerhouse, Phillip Clapham, Remi Dodémont, David Donnelly, Ari Friedlaender, Ramon Gallego, Claire Garrigue, Yulia Ivashchenko, Simon Jarman, Rebecca Lindsay, Logan Pallin, Jooke Robbins, Debbie Steel, James Tremlett, Silje Vindenes, Rochelle ConstantineGet access
Published 2018
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305by Steel, D, Schmitt, N, Anderson, Megan, Burns, Daniel, Childerhouse, S, Constantine, R, Franklin, Trish, Franklin, Wally, Gales, N, Garrigue, C, Gibb, N, Hauser, N, Mattila, D, Olavarria, C, Paton, D, Poole, M, Robbins, J, Ward, J, Harrison, Peter L, Baverstock, Peter R, Double, M, Baker, C SGet access
Published 2011
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306by Riekkola, Leena, Zerbini, Alexandre N., Andrews, Olive, Andrews-Goff, Virginia, Baker, Scott, Childerhouse, Simon, Clapham, Phillip, Dodémont, Remi, Donnelly, David, Friedlaender, Ari, Gallego, Ramon, Garrigue, Claire, Ivashchenko, Yulia, Jarman, Simon, Lindsay, Rebecca, Pallin, Logan, Jooke Robbins, Steel, Debbie, Tremlett, James, Vindenes, Silje, Constantine, RochelleGet access
Published 2018
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307by Riekkola, Leena, Zerbini, Alexandre N., Andrews, Olive, Andrews-Goff, Virginia, Baker, Scott, Childerhouse, Simon, Clapham, Phillip, Dodémont, Remi, Donnelly, David, Friedlaender, Ari, Gallego, Ramon, Garrigue, Claire, Ivashchenko, Yulia, Jarman, Simon, Lindsay, Rebecca, Pallin, Logan, Jooke Robbins, Steel, Debbie, Tremlett, James, Vindenes, Silje, Constantine, RochelleGet access
Published 2018
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308by Sebastián Kraft (11829425), MJosé Pérez-Alvarez (11829428), Carlos Olavarría (727870), Rodrigo Moraga (727871), C. Scott Baker (178898), Debbie Steel (3262806), Paul Tixier (9597794), Christophe Guinet (172101), Amelia Viricel (3285105), Paul Brickle (228540), Marina Costa (5073269), Enrique Crespo (3264930), Cristian Durante (11829431), Rocio Loizaga (11829434), Elie Poulin (524670)Get access
Published 2021
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309by Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Calambokidis, John, Falcone, Erin A., Gozález-Peral, Ursula, Barlow, Jay, Burdin, Alexander M., Clapham, Phillip J., Ford, John K. B., Gabriele, Christine M., Mattila, David, Straley, Janice M., Taylor, Barbara L., Urbán, Jorge, Wade, Paul, Weller, David, Witteveen, Briana H., Yamaguchi, ManamiGet access
Published 2013
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310by Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Calambokidis, John, Falcone, Erin A., Gozález-Peral, Ursula, Barlow, Jay, Burdin, Alexander M., Clapham, Phillip J., Ford, John K. B., Gabriele, Christine M., Mattila, David, Straley, Janice M., Taylor, Barbara L., Urbán, Jorge, Wade, Paul, Weller, David, Witteveen, Briana H., Yamaguchi, ManamiGet access
Published 2013
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311by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, R, Bannister, J L, Bérube, Martine, Best, P B, Boren, L, Baker, C S, Constantine, R., Findlay, K, Harcourt, R, Lemaire, L, Palsbøll, P. J., Patenaude, N J, Rowntree, V J, Seger, J, Steel, D, Valenzuela, L O, Watson, M, Gaggiotti, O. E.Get access
Published in Heredity (2019)
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312by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, Rachael, Bannister, John L., Bérubé, Martine, Best, Peter B., Boren, Laura, Baker, C. Scott, Constantine, Rochelle, Findlay, Ken, Harcourt, Robert, Lemaire, Louisiane, Palsbøll, Per J., Patenaude, Nathalie J., Rowntree, Victoria J., Seger, Jon, Steel, Debbie, Valenzuela, Luciano O., Watson, Mandy, Gaggiotti, Oscar E.Get access
Published 2018
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313by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, Rachael, Bannister, John L., Bérubé, Martine, Best, Peter B., Boren, Laura, Baker, C. Scott, Constantine, Rochelle, Findlay, Ken, Harcourt, Robert, Lemaire, Louisiane, Palsbøll, Per J., Patenaude, Nathalie J., Rowntree, Victoria J., Seger, Jon, Steel, Debbie, Valenzuela, Luciano O., Watson, Mandy, Gaggiotti, Oscar E.Get access
Published 2018
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314by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, Rachael, Bannister, John L., Bérubé, Martine, Best, Peter B., Boren, Laura, Baker, C. Scott, Constantine, Rochelle, Findlay, Ken, Harcourt, Robert, Lemaire, Louisiane, Palsbøll, Per J., Patenaude, Nathalie J., Rowntree, Victoria J., Seger, Jon, Steel, Debbie, Valenzuela, Luciano O., Watson, Mandy, Gaggiotti, Oscar E.Get access
Published 2020
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315by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, Rachael, Bannister, John L., Bérubé, Martine, Best, Peter B., Boren, Laura, Baker, C. Scott, Constantine, Rochelle, Findlay, Ken, Harcourt, Robert, Lemaire, Louisiane, Palsbøll, Per J., Patenaude, Nathalie J., Rowntree, Victoria J., Seger, Jon, Steel, Debbie, Valenzuela, Luciano O., Watson, Mandy, Gaggiotti, Oscar E.Get access
Published 2018
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316by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, Rachael, Bannister, John L., Bérubé, Martine, Best, Peter B., Boren, Laura, Baker, C. Scott, Constantine, Rochelle, Findlay, Ken, Harcourt, Robert, Lemaire, Louisiane, Palsbøll, Per J., Patenaude, Nathalie J., Rowntree, Victoria J., Seger, Jon, Steel, Debbie, Valenzuela, Luciano O., Watson, Mandy, Gaggiotti, Oscar E.Get access
Published 2018
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317by Allison Golden, Eric J Stevens, Lindsay Yokobe, Dunia Faulx, Michael Kalnoky, Roger Peck, Melissa Valdez, Cathy Steel, Potochoziou Karabou, Méba Banla, Peter T Soboslay, Kangi Adade, Afework H Tekle, Vitaliano A Cama, Peter U Fischer, Thomas B Nutman, Thomas R Unnasch, Tala de los Santos, Gonzalo J DomingoGet access
Published in PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases (2016)
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318by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, R, Bannister, J L, Bérube, Martine, Best, P B, Boren, L, Baker, C S, Constantine, R., Findlay, K, Harcourt, R, Lemaire, L, Palsbøll, P. J., Patenaude, N J, Rowntree, V J, Seger, J, Steel, D, Valenzuela, L O, Watson, M, Gaggiotti, O. E.Get access
Published in Heredity (2018)
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319by Riekkola, Leena, Zerbini, Alexandre N., Andrews, Olive, Andrews-Goff, Virginia, Baker, C. Scott, Chandler, David, Childerhouse, Simon, Clapham, Phillip, Dodémont, Remi, Donnelly, David, Friedlaender, Ari, Gallego, Ramon, Garrigue, Claire, Ivashchenko, Yulia, Jarman, Simon, Lindsay, Rebecca, Pallin, Logan, Robbins, Jooke, Steel, Debbie, Tremlett, James, Vindenes, Silje, Constantine, RochelleGet access
Published in Ecological Indicators (2018)
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320by Carroll, Emma L., Alderman, R, Bannister, J L, Bérube, Martine, Best, P B, Boren, L, Baker, C S, Constantine, R., Findlay, K, Harcourt, R, Lemaire, L, Palsbøll, P. J., Patenaude, N J, Rowntree, V J, Seger, J, Steel, D, Valenzuela, L O, Watson, M, Gaggiotti, O. E.Get access
Published in Heredity (2019)
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