Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons.Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels, which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation, typically need an additional 11% chromium.
Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations.
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.
Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel. This was followed by the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th century, and then by the open-hearth furnace. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought iron. The German states were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centered in Pittsburgh, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Cleveland until the late 20th century.
Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and greenhouse gas emission intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally. Provided by Wikipedia
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281by Carola Schafer, Nicholas Dambrauskas, Ryan W. Steel, Sara Carbonetti, Vorada Chuenchob, Erika L. Flannery, Vladimir Vigdorovich, Brian G. Oliver, Wanlapa Roobsoong, Steven P. Maher, Dennis Kyle, Jetsumon Sattabongkot, Stefan H. I. Kappe, Sebastian A. Mikolajczak, D. Noah SatherGet access
Published in Malaria Journal (2018)
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282by Schmitt, Natalie, Double, Michael C., Baker, Scott, Gales, Nick, Childerhouse, Simon, Polanowski, Andrea M., Steel, Debbie, Albertson, Renee, Olavarria, Carlos, Garrigue, Claire, Poole, Michael, Hauser, Nan, Constantine, Rochelle, Paton, David, Jenner, K. Curt S., Jarman, Simon N., Peakall, RodneyGet access
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283by Pallin, L., Bierlich, K. C., Durban, J., Fearnbach, H., Savenko, O., Baker, C. S., Bell, E., Double, M. C., de la Mare, W., Goldbogen, J., Johnston, D., Kellar, N., Nichols, R., Nowacek, D., Read, A. J., Steel, D., Friedlaender, A.Get access
Published in Royal Society Open Science (2022)
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284by Barlow, DR, Torres, LG, Hodge, KB, Steel, D, Baker, CS, Chandler, TE, Bott, N, Constantine, R, Double, MC, Gill, P, Glasgow, D, Hamner, RM, Lilley, C, Ogle, M, Olson, PA, Peters, C, Stockin, KA, Tessaglia-Hymes, CT, Klinck, HGet access
Published in Endangered Species Research (2018)
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285by L. Pallin, K. C. Bierlich, J. Durban, H. Fearnbach, O. Savenko, C. S. Baker, E. Bell, M. C. Double, W. de la Mare, J. Goldbogen, D. Johnston, N. Kellar, R. Nichols, D. Nowacek, A. J. Read, D. Steel, A. FriedlaenderGet access
Published 2022
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286by L. Pallin, K. C. Bierlich, J. Durban, H. Fearnbach, O. Savenko, C. S. Baker, E. Bell, M. C. Double, W. de la Mare, J. Goldbogen, D. Johnston, N. Kellar, R. Nichols, D. Nowacek, A. J. Read, D. Steel, A. FriedlaenderGet access
Published 2022
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287by L. Pallin, K. C. Bierlich, J. Durban, H. Fearnbach, O. Savenko, C. S. Baker, E. Bell, M. C. Double, W. de la Mare, J. Goldbogen, D. Johnston, N. Kellar, R. Nichols, D. Nowacek, A. J. Read, D. Steel, A. FriedlaenderGet access
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288by L. Pallin, K. C. Bierlich, J. Durban, H. Fearnbach, O. Savenko, C. S. Baker, E. Bell, M. C. Double, W. de la Mare, J. Goldbogen, D. Johnston, N. Kellar, R. Nichols, D. Nowacek, A. J. Read, D. Steel, A. FriedlaenderGet access
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289by L. Pallin, K. C. Bierlich, J. Durban, H. Fearnbach, O. Savenko, C. S. Baker, E. Bell, M. C. Double, W. de la Mare, J. Goldbogen, D. Johnston, N. Kellar, R. Nichols, D. Nowacek, A. J. Read, D. Steel, A. FriedlaenderGet access
Published 2022
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290by L. Pallin, K. C. Bierlich, J. Durban, H. Fearnbach, O. Savenko, C. S. Baker, E. Bell, M. C. Double, W. de la Mare, J. Goldbogen, D. Johnston, N. Kellar, R. Nichols, D. Nowacek, A. J. Read, D. Steel, A. FriedlaenderGet access
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291by Pallin, L., Bierlich, K. C., Durban, J., Fearnbach, H., Savenko, O., Baker, C. S., Bell, E., Double, M. C., de la Mare, W., Goldbogen, J., Johnston, D., Kellar, N., Nichols, R., Nowacek, D., Read, A. J., Steel, D., Friedlaender, A.Get access
Published in Royal Society Open Science (2022)
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292by Steel, D., Anderson, M., Garrigue, Claire, Olavarria, C., Caballero, S., Childerhouse, S., Clapham, P., Constantine, R., Dawson, S., Donoghue, M., Florez-Gonzalez, L., Gibbs, N., Hauser, N., Oremus, M., Paton, D., Poole, M. M., Robbins, J., Slooten, L., Thiele, D., Ward, J., Baker, C. S.Get access
Published 2018
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293by Steel, D., Anderson, M., Garrigue, C., Olavarría, C., Caballero, S., Childerhouse, S., Clapham, P., Constantine, R., Dawson, S., Donoghue, M., Flórez-González, L., Gibbs, N., Hauser, N., Oremus, M., Paton, D., Poole, M. M., Robbins, J., Slooten, L., Thiele, D., Ward, J., Baker, C. S.Get access
Published in Polar Biology (2017)
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294by Nailma S A Dos Santos, Carlos F Estevez-Castro, Juan P Macedo, Daniela F Chame, Thiago Castro-Gomes, Mariana Santos-Cardoso, Gabriela A Burle-Caldas, Courtney N Covington, Patrick G Steel, Terry K Smith, Paul W Denny, Santuza M R TeixeiraGet access
Published in PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases (2023)
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295by Hamner, Rebecca M., Barlow, Dawn, Torres, Leigh, Hodge, Kristin, Steel, Debbie, Baker, C. Scott, Chandler, Todd, Bott, Nadine, Constantine, Rochelle, Double, Michael, Gill, Peter, Glasgow, Debra, Lilley, Callum, Ogle, Mike, Olson, Paula, Peters, Catherine, Stockin, Karen, Tessaglia-Hymes, Christopher T., Klinck, HolgerGet access
Published in Endangered Species Research (2018)
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296by Sremba, Angela L, Martin, Anthony R, Wilson, Peter, Cypriano-Souza, Ana Lúcia, Buss, Danielle L, Hart, Tom, Engel, Marcia H, Bonatto, Sandro L, Rosenbaum, Howard, Collins, Tim, Olavarría, Carlos, Archer, Frederick I, Steel, Debbie, Jackson, Jennifer A, Baker, C ScottGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2023)
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297by Sremba, Angela L, Martin, Anthony R., Wilson, Peter, Cypriano-Souza, Ana Lúcia, Buss, Danielle L., Hart, Tom, Engel, Marcia H., Bonatto, Sandro L., Rosenbaum, Howard, Collins, Tim, Olavarría, Carlos, Archer, Frederick I., Steel, Debbie, Jackson, Jennifer A., Baker, C. ScottGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2023)
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298by Sremba, Angela L, Martin, Anthony R, Wilson, Peter, Cypriano-Souza, Ana Lúcia, Buss, Danielle L, Hart, Tom, Engel, Marcia H, Bonatto, Sandro L, Rosenbaum, Howard, Collins, Tim, Olavarría, Carlos, Archer, Frederick I, Steel, Debbie, Jackson, Jennifer A, Baker, C ScottGet access
Published in Journal of Heredity (2023)
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299by Drienne Messa Faria, Debbie Steel, C Scott Baker, José Martins da Silva, Ana Carolina Oliveira de Meirelles, Luciano Raimundo Alardo Souto, Salvatore Siciliano, Lupércio Araujo Barbosa, Eduardo Secchi, Juliana Couto Di Tullio, Larissa Rosa de Oliveira, Paulo Henrique Ott, Ana Paula Cazerta FarroGet access
Published in PLOS ONE (2022)
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300by Faria, Drienne Messa, Steel, Debbie, Baker, C. Scott, da Silva, José Martins, de Meirelles, Ana Carolina Oliveira, Souto, Luciano Raimundo Alardo, Siciliano, Salvatore, Barbosa, Lupércio Araujo, Secchi, Eduardo, Di Tullio, Juliana Couto, de Oliveira, Larissa Rosa, Ott, Paulo Henrique, Farro, Ana Paula CazertaGet access
Published in PLOS ONE (2022)
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