Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with improved strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Because of its high tensile strength and low cost, steel is one of the most commonly manufactured materials in the world. Steel is used in buildings, as concrete reinforcing rods, in bridges, infrastructure, tools, ships, trains, cars, bicycles, machines, electrical appliances, furniture, and weapons.Iron is always the main element in steel, but many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels, which are resistant to corrosion and oxidation, typically need an additional 11% chromium.
Iron is the base metal of steel. Depending on the temperature, it can take two crystalline forms (allotropic forms): body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic. The interaction of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, gives steel and cast iron their range of unique properties. In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations.
The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), impedes the movement of the dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and enhances its qualities. These qualities include the hardness, quenching behaviour, need for annealing, tempering behaviour, yield strength, and tensile strength of the resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by reducing iron's ductility.
Steel was produced in bloomery furnaces for thousands of years, but its large-scale, industrial use began only after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century, with the introduction of the blast furnace and production of crucible steel. This was followed by the Bessemer process in England in the mid-19th century, and then by the open-hearth furnace. With the invention of the Bessemer process, a new era of mass-produced steel began. Mild steel replaced wrought iron. The German states were the major steel producers in Europe in the 19th century. American steel production was centered in Pittsburgh, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and Cleveland until the late 20th century.
Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS), largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the final product. Today more than 1.6 billion tons of steel is produced annually. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations. The modern steel industry is one of the largest manufacturing industries in the world, but also one of the most energy and greenhouse gas emission intense industries, contributing 8% of global emissions. However, steel is also very reusable: it is one of the world's most-recycled materials, with a recycling rate of over 60% globally. Provided by Wikipedia
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241by Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Choi, Yeyong, Lee, Hang, Kim, Kyung Seok, Choi, Sung Kyoung, Ma, Yong-Un, Hambleton, Charles, Psihoyos, Louie, Brownell, R. L., Jr, Funahashi, NaokoGet access
Published 2010
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242by Robbins, Jooke, Polanowski, Andrea, Barco, Susan, Bérubé, Martine, Chandler, David, Clapham, Philip, George, Clay, Jackson, Katharine, Mattila, David, Palsboll, Per, Pitchford, Tom, Steel, Debbie, Tackaberry, Jennifer, Jarman, SimonGet access
Published 2017
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243by Young, Mark T., Brusatte, Stephen L., Brandalise de Andrade, Marco, Desojo, Julia Brenda, Beatty, Brian L., Steel, Lorna, Fernández, Marta Susana, Sakamoto, Manabu, Ruiz-Omeñaca, José Ignacio, Schoch, Rainer R.Get access
Published 2012
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244by Sremba, Angela L., Sirovic, Ana, Dziak, Robert P., Baker, C. Scott, Mate, Bruce R., Hayslip, Craig E., Steel, Debbie J., Haxel, Joseph H., Palacios, Daniel M., Calambokidis, John C.Get access
Published in OCEANS 2019 MTS/IEEE SEATTLE (2019)
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245by Witteveen, Briana H., Straley, Jan M., Chenoweth, Ellen, Baker, C. Scott, Barlow, Jay, Matkin, Craig, Gabriele, Christine M., Nielsen, Janet, Steel, Debbie, von Ziegesar, Olga, Andrews, Alexander G., Hirons, AmyGet access
Published 2011
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246by Cypriano-Souza, Ana Lúcia, Engel, Márcia H., Caballero, Susana, Olavarría, Carlos, Flórez-González, Lilián, Capella, Juan, Steel, Debbie, Sremba, Angie, Aguayo, Anelio, Thiele, Deborah, Baker, C. Scott, Bonatto, Sandro L.Get access
Published in Marine Mammal Science (2016)
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247by Benjamin F Arnold, Mark J van der Laan, Alan E Hubbard, Cathy Steel, Joseph Kubofcik, Katy L Hamlin, Delynn M Moss, Thomas B Nutman, Jeffrey W Priest, Patrick J LammieGet access
Published in PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases (2017)
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248by Pallin, LJ, Botero-Acosta, N, Steel, D, Baker, CS, Casey, C, Costa, DP, Goldbogen, JA, Johnston, DW, Kellar, NM, Modest, M, Nichols, R, Roberts, D, Roberts, M, Savenko, O, Friedlaender, ASGet access
Published 2022
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249by Thiele, Deborah, Cypriano-Souza, Ana Lúcia, Engel, Márcia H., Caballero, Susana, Olavarría, Carlos, Flórez-González, Lilián, Capella, Juan, Steel, Debbie, Sremba, Angie, Aguayo, A., Baker, C. Scott, Bonatto, Sandro L.Get access
Published in Marine Mammal Science
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250by Atkinson, Shannon, Rogan, Andrew, Baker, C. Scott, Dagdag, Ralf, Redlinger, Matthew, Polinski, Jennifer, Urban, Jorge, Sremba, Angie, Branson, Maile, Mashburn, Kendall, Pallin, Logan, Klink, Amy, Steel, Debbie, Bortz, Eric, Kerr, IainGet access
Published in Wildlife Society Bulletin (2021)
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251by Sebastián Kraft, MJosé Pérez-Alvarez, Carlos Olavarría, Rodrigo Moraga, C. Scott Baker, Debbie Steel, Paul Tixier, Christophe Guinet, Amelia Viricel, Paul Brickle, Marina Costa, Enrique Crespo, Cristian Durante, Rocio Loizaga, Elie PoulinGet access
Published in Frontiers in Marine Science (2021)
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252by Kraft, Sebastián, Pérez-alvarez, Mjosé, Olavarría, Carlos, Moraga, Rodrigo, Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Tixier, Paul, Guinet, Christophe, Viricel, Amelia, Brickle, Paul, Costa, Marina, Crespo, Enrique, Durante, Cristian, Loizaga, Rocio, Poulin, ElieGet access
Published in Frontiers in Marine Science (2021)
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253by Kraft, Sebastián, Pérez-Alvarez, MJosé, Olavarría, Carlos, Moraga, Rodrigo, Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Tixier, Paul, Guinet, Christophe, Viricel, Amelia, Brickle, Paul, Costa, Marina, Crespo, Enrique, Durante, Cristian, Loizaga, Rocio, Poulin, ElieGet access
Published in Frontiers in Marine Science (2021)
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254by Kraft, Sebastián, Pérez-alvarez, Mjosé, Olavarría, Carlos, Moraga, Rodrigo, Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Tixier, Paul, Guinet, Christophe, Viricel, Amelia, Brickle, Paul, Costa, Marina, Crespo, Enrique, Durante, Cristian, Loizaga, Rocio, Poulin, ElieGet access
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255by Kraft, Sebastian, Pérez-Alvarez, MJosé, Olavarría, Carlos, Moraga, Rodrigo, Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Tixier, Paul, Guinet, Christophe, Viricel, Amelia, Brickle, Paul, Costa, Marina, Crespo, Enrique, Durante, Cristian, Loizaga, Rocio, Poulin, ElieGet access
Published in Frontiers in Marine Science (2021)
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256by Kraft, Sebastián, Pérez-Alvarez, Mjosé, Olavarría, Carlos, Moraga, Rodrigo, Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Tixier, Paul, Guinet, Christophe, Viricel, Amelia, Brickle, Paul, Costa, Marina, Crespo, Enrique, Durante, Cristian, Loizaga, Rocio, Poulin, ElieGet access
Published in Frontiers in Marine Science (2021)
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257by Kraft, Sebastián, Pérez-Alvarez, Mjosé, Olavarría, Carlos, Moraga, Rodrigo, Baker, C. Scott, Steel, Debbie, Tixier, Paul, Guinet, Christophe, Viricel, Amelia, Brickle, Paul, Costa, Marina, Crespo, Enrique, Durante, Cristian, Loizaga, Rocio, Poulin, ElieGet access
Published in Frontiers in Marine Science (2021)
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258by Sebastián Kraft, MJosé Pérez-Alvarez, Carlos Olavarría, Rodrigo Moraga, C. Scott Baker, Debbie Steel, Paul Tixier, Christophe Guinet, Amelia Viricel, Paul Brickle, Marina Costa, Enrique Crespo, Cristian Durante, Rocio Loizaga, Elie PoulinGet access
Published 2021
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259by Constantine, Rochelle, Jackson, Jennifer A, Steel, Debbie, Baker, Scott, Brooks, Lyndon O, Burns, Daniel, Clapham, Phillip, Hauser, Nan, Madon, Bénédicte, Matitila, David, Oremus, Marc, Poole, Michael, Robbins, Jooke, Thompson, Kirsten, Garrigue, ClaireGet access
Published in Marine Ecology Progress Series (2012)
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260by Constantine, Rochelle, Jackson, Jennifer A., Steel, Debbie, Baker, C. Scott, Brooks, Lyndon, Burns, Daniel, Clapham, Philip, Hauser, Nan, Madon, Benedicte, Mattila, David, Oremus, Marc, Poole, Michael, Robbins, Jooke, Thompson, Kirsten, Garrigue, ClaireGet access
Published in Marine Ecology Progress Series (2012)
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